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Trovao NS, Pan V, Goel C, Gallego-García P, Liu Y, Barbara C, Borg R, Briffa M, Cilia C, Grech L, Vassallo M, Treangen TJ, Posada D, Beheshti A, Borg J, Zahra G. Evolutionary and spatiotemporal analyses reveal multiple introductions and cryptic transmission of SARS-CoV-2 VOC/VOI in Malta. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0153923. [PMID: 37800925 PMCID: PMC10714767 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01539-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Our study provides insights into the evolution of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in Malta, a highly connected and understudied country. We combined epidemiological and phylodynamic analyses to analyze trends in the number of new cases, deaths, tests, positivity rates, and evolutionary and dispersal patterns from August 2020 to January 2022. Our reconstructions inferred 173 independent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 introductions into Malta from various global regions. Our study demonstrates that characterizing epidemiological trends coupled with phylodynamic modeling can inform the implementation of public health interventions to help control COVID-19 transmission in the community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidia S. Trovao
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Vincent Pan
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
- Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Chirag Goel
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Pilar Gallego-García
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
| | - Yunxi Liu
- Department of Computer Science, Rice University, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Christopher Barbara
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
| | - Rebecca Borg
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
| | - Mark Briffa
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
| | - Chanelle Cilia
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
| | - Laura Grech
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
| | - Mario Vassallo
- Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Todd J. Treangen
- Department of Computer Science, Rice University, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - David Posada
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
- Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Vigo, Spain
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics, and Immunology, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
| | - Afshin Beheshti
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- KBR, Space Biosciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, USA
| | - Joseph Borg
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Applied Biomedical Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
| | - Graziella Zahra
- Molecular Diagnostics-Infectious Diseases, Department of Pathology, Mater Dei Hospital, Msida, Malta
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2
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Haltom J, Trovao NS, Guarnieri J, Vincent P, Singh U, Tsoy S, O'Leary CA, Bram Y, Widjaja GA, Cen Z, Meller R, Baylin SB, Moss WN, Nikolau BJ, Enguita FJ, Wallace DC, Beheshti A, Schwartz R, Wurtele ES. SARS-CoV-2 Orphan Gene ORF10 Contributes to More Severe COVID-19 Disease. medRxiv 2023:2023.11.27.23298847. [PMID: 38076862 PMCID: PMC10705665 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.27.23298847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
The orphan gene of SARS-CoV-2, ORF10, is the least studied gene in the virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent experimentation indicated ORF10 expression moderates innate immunity in vitro. However, whether ORF10 affects COVID-19 in humans remained unknown. We determine that the ORF10 sequence is identical to the Wuhan-Hu-1 ancestral haplotype in 95% of genomes across five variants of concern (VOC). Four ORF10 variants are associated with less virulent clinical outcomes in the human host: three of these affect ORF10 protein structure, one affects ORF10 RNA structural dynamics. RNA-Seq data from 2070 samples from diverse human cells and tissues reveals ORF10 accumulation is conditionally discordant from that of other SARS-CoV-2 transcripts. Expression of ORF10 in A549 and HEK293 cells perturbs immune-related gene expression networks, alters expression of the majority of mitochondrially-encoded genes of oxidative respiration, and leads to large shifts in levels of 14 newly-identified transcripts. We conclude ORF10 contributes to more severe COVID-19 clinical outcomes in the human host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Haltom
- Department of Genetics Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Nidia S Trovao
- Division of International Epidemiology and Population Studies, Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Joseph Guarnieri
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Pan Vincent
- Division of International Epidemiology and Population Studies, Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Urminder Singh
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, and Genetics Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Sergey Tsoy
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Collin A O'Leary
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Yaron Bram
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gabrielle A Widjaja
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Zimu Cen
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Robert Meller
- Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA , 30310-1495, USA
| | - Stephen B Baylin
- Department of Oncology, Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, MD 21231
- Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503
| | - Walter N Moss
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, and Genetics Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Basil J Nikolau
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, and Genetics Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Francisco J Enguita
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Douglas C Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Afshin Beheshti
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, 98104 USA
| | - Robert Schwartz
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Physiology, Biophysics and Systems Biology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Eve Syrkin Wurtele
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, and Genetics Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Department of Genetics Development and Cell Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
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3
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Guarnieri JW, Dybas JM, Fazelinia H, Kim MS, Frere J, Zhang Y, Soto Albrecht Y, Murdock DG, Angelin A, Singh LN, Weiss SL, Best SM, Lott MT, Zhang S, Cope H, Zaksas V, Saravia-Butler A, Meydan C, Foox J, Mozsary C, Bram Y, Kidane Y, Priebe W, Emmett MR, Meller R, Demharter S, Stentoft-Hansen V, Salvatore M, Galeano D, Enguita FJ, Grabham P, Trovao NS, Singh U, Haltom J, Heise MT, Moorman NJ, Baxter VK, Madden EA, Taft-Benz SA, Anderson EJ, Sanders WA, Dickmander RJ, Baylin SB, Wurtele ES, Moraes-Vieira PM, Taylor D, Mason CE, Schisler JC, Schwartz RE, Beheshti A, Wallace DC. Core mitochondrial genes are down-regulated during SARS-CoV-2 infection of rodent and human hosts. Sci Transl Med 2023; 15:eabq1533. [PMID: 37556555 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abq1533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral proteins bind to host mitochondrial proteins, likely inhibiting oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and stimulating glycolysis. We analyzed mitochondrial gene expression in nasopharyngeal and autopsy tissues from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In nasopharyngeal samples with declining viral titers, the virus blocked the transcription of a subset of nuclear DNA (nDNA)-encoded mitochondrial OXPHOS genes, induced the expression of microRNA 2392, activated HIF-1α to induce glycolysis, and activated host immune defenses including the integrated stress response. In autopsy tissues from patients with COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 was no longer present, and mitochondrial gene transcription had recovered in the lungs. However, nDNA mitochondrial gene expression remained suppressed in autopsy tissue from the heart and, to a lesser extent, kidney, and liver, whereas mitochondrial DNA transcription was induced and host-immune defense pathways were activated. During early SARS-CoV-2 infection of hamsters with peak lung viral load, mitochondrial gene expression in the lung was minimally perturbed but was down-regulated in the cerebellum and up-regulated in the striatum even though no SARS-CoV-2 was detected in the brain. During the mid-phase SARS-CoV-2 infection of mice, mitochondrial gene expression was starting to recover in mouse lungs. These data suggest that when the viral titer first peaks, there is a systemic host response followed by viral suppression of mitochondrial gene transcription and induction of glycolysis leading to the deployment of antiviral immune defenses. Even when the virus was cleared and lung mitochondrial function had recovered, mitochondrial function in the heart, kidney, liver, and lymph nodes remained impaired, potentially leading to severe COVID-19 pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Guarnieri
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Joseph M Dybas
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Hossein Fazelinia
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Man S Kim
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Justin Frere
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10023, USA
| | - Yuanchao Zhang
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Yentli Soto Albrecht
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Deborah G Murdock
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Alessia Angelin
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Larry N Singh
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Scott L Weiss
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sonja M Best
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Rocky Mountain Laboratory, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA
| | - Marie T Lott
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Shiping Zhang
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Henry Cope
- University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Victoria Zaksas
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60615, USA
- Clever Research Lab, Springfield, IL 62704, USA
| | - Amanda Saravia-Butler
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Logyx, LLC, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
| | - Cem Meydan
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | | | - Yaron Bram
- Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yared Kidane
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX 75219, USA
| | - Waldemar Priebe
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mark R Emmett
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Robert Meller
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30310, USA
| | | | | | | | - Diego Galeano
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, San Lorenzo, Central, Paraguay
| | - Francisco J Enguita
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Peter Grabham
- College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 19103, USA
| | - Nidia S Trovao
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Urminder Singh
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Jeffrey Haltom
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Mark T Heise
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | - Victoria K Baxter
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Emily A Madden
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | | | - Wes A Sanders
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | | | - Stephen B Baylin
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Eve Syrkin Wurtele
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Pedro M Moraes-Vieira
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Deanne Taylor
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| | - Christopher E Mason
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
- New York Genome Center, New York, NY 10013, USA
| | - Jonathan C Schisler
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Robert E Schwartz
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Afshin Beheshti
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- KBR, Space Biosciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
| | - Douglas C Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- COVID-19 International Research Team, Medford, MA 02155, USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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4
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Tamim S, Trovao NS, Thielen P, Mehoke T, Merritt B, Ikram A, Salman M, Alam MM, Umair M, Badar N, Khurshid A, Mehmood N. Genetic and evolutionary analysis of SARS-CoV-2 circulating in the region surrounding Islamabad, Pakistan. Infect Genet Evol 2021; 94:105003. [PMID: 34271187 PMCID: PMC8277555 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.105003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Genomic epidemiology of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has provided global epidemiological insight into the COVID-19 pandemic since it began. Sequencing of the virus has been performed at scale, with many countries depositing data into open access repositories to enable in-depth global phylogenetic analysis. To contribute to these efforts, we established an Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) sequencing capability at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Pakistan. This study highlights multiple SARS-CoV-2 lineages co-circulating during the peak of a second COVID-19 wave in Pakistan (Nov 2020-Feb 2021), with virus origins traced to the United States of America and Saudi Arabia. Ten SARS-CoV-2 positive samples were used for ONT library preparation. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis determined that the patients were infected with lineage B.1.1.250, originally identified in the United Kingdom and Bangladesh during March and April of 2020, and in circulation until the time of this study in Europe, USA and Australia. Lineage B.1.261 was originally identified in Saudi Arabia with widespread local dissemination in Pakistan. One sample clustered with the parental B.1 lineage and the other with lineage B.6 originally from Singapore. In the future, monitoring the evolutionary dynamics of circulating lineages in Pakistan will enable improved tracing of the viral spread, changing trends of their expansion trajectories, persistence, changes in their demographic dynamics, and provide guidance for better implementation of control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana Tamim
- Department of Virology/Immunology, National Institute of Health, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan.
| | - Nidia S Trovao
- Fogarty International Centre, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Peter Thielen
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, USA
| | - Tom Mehoke
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, USA
| | - Brian Merritt
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, USA
| | - Aamer Ikram
- Department of Virology/Immunology, National Institute of Health, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Salman
- Department of Virology/Immunology, National Institute of Health, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Masroor Alam
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory, Polio eradication Initiative, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Massab Umair
- Department of Virology/Immunology, National Institute of Health, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan
| | - Nazish Badar
- Department of Virology/Immunology, National Institute of Health, Park Road, Chak Shahzad, Islamabad 45500, Pakistan
| | - Adnan Khurshid
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory, Polio eradication Initiative, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Nayab Mehmood
- WHO Regional Reference Laboratory, Polio eradication Initiative, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan
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