Influence of anesthesia with isoflurane on myocardial velocities of racing pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica)

OBJECTIVE

Tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) is a new technique to measure the myocardial velocities of the avian heart. Using this technique, the present study investigated the influence of isoflurane anesthesia on the systolic and diastolic longitudinal myocardial velocities in racing pigeons.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Racing pigeons (n = 40) were anesthetized with isoflurane with a semi-open anesthesia system with an anesthetic mask and spontaneous breath. The echocardiographic examination was performed during the stage of surgical anesthesia with the failure of the toe pinch and wing twitch reflexes and with deep regular breaths. Echocardiographic measurements were taken in conscious and anesthetized pigeons in the right parasternal longitudinal horizontal heart view.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated a significant decrease in heart rate, systolic and diastolic A' wave myocardial velocities. The diastolic E' wave velocities were less influenced by anesthesia and significantly decreased only for some heart wall segments. The systolic myocardial velocities were significantly negatively correlated with the heart rate. Using the TDI curve, the isovolumic contraction (IVC) and relaxation time (IVR) and the time of atrioventricular delay during anesthesia could be determined. There is a significant increase in IVR and atrioventricular delay during anesthesia CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCEN: A higher heart rate in anesthesia should be interpreted as a compensation for reduced heart performance. The results of the present study indicate the necessity for establishing normal heart values in conscious and anesthetized pigeons.

Diastolic and Systolic Longitudinal Myocardial Velocities of Healthy Racing Pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) Measured by Tissue Doppler Imaging

Tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) is a noninvasive sonographic method of acquiring and quantifying myocardial velocities. This technique is used in human and small animal medicine to diagnose cardiac diseases. Using this technique, we evaluated the longitudinal myocardial peak velocities of the interventricular septum, and the left and right ventricular free walls in the systole and diastole in 40 racing pigeons. The TDI examinations confirmed the movement of the heart base toward the apex in the systole and away from the apex in the diastole. Inhomogeneous distribution of the myocardial velocities with a statistically significant velocity gradient from the basal to the apical myocardial segments was found. The left and right free walls have significantly higher myocardial velocities than the myocardium of the septum. The myocardial velocities during active ventricular filling were significantly higher in the right ventricular free wall than in the left one. The validation of the method resulted in coefficients of variation between 3% and 33% for the systolic and 3% and 75% for the diastolic individual myocardial velocities. Weekly repeated measurements resulted in variation coefficients between 3% and 45% for systolic and diastolic myocardial velocities, respectively.

Color Flow Doppler Echocardiography in Healthy Racing Pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) and the Evidence of Physiological Blood Flow Vortex Formations

In avian medicine, Doppler sonographic techniques are used to visualize and estimate blood flow in the heart. In the literature there is a lack of standardized studies of the use of color Doppler flow on healthy avian species. For this purpose, we examined blood flow in the heart in the four-chamber view of clinically healthy awake racing pigeons (n = 43) by color flow Doppler sonography. With this technique the diastolic and systolic blood flow in the heart chambers and the heart valve regions were well visualized. However, the pulse repetition frequency must be adapted to the specific blood flow velocities of the heart region to be measured to reduce aliasing in higher velocities and to visualize blood flow of lower velocities. With the help of color Doppler imaging in the four-chamber view, typical physiological atrial and ventricular blood flow vortex formations were visualized in the avian heart for the first time. In the left ventricle an asymmetric vortex ring in the passive and active ventricular filling, in the right ventricle a great counter-clockwise blood vortex in the active ventricular filling, in the left atrium a vortex clockwise, and in the right atrium counter-clockwise were observed. The knowledge of these physiological blood flow vortices is important to identify pathological blood flow.

The influence of anesthesia with isoflurane on the pulmonary and aortic blood flow of Racing Pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) measured by pulsed wave Doppler echocardiography

Doppler echocardiographic examinations are an important technique for evaluating the blood flow also in avian cardiology. The influence of anesthesia on the blood flow in the heart is in detail unknown for the most avian species. The present study investigated the influence of an isoflurane anesthesia on the systolic blood flow of the aorta and the pulmonary artery in the area of the heart valves examined by pulsed wave Doppler sonography in Racing Pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica, n = 43). Measurements were taken in conscious and anaesthetized birds in the left (aorta) and right (pulmonary artery) parasternal longitudinal horizontal heart view. The results demonstrated a significant decrease in heart rate and systolic peak flow velocities as well as prolonged ejection times during anesthesia. A positive correlation of systolic peak flow velocity and heart rate could be demonstrated, especially for the pulmonary artery in conscious pigeons. The aortic systolic peak flow velocity and heart rate showed a significantly negative correlation in anaesthetized pigeons. These correlations should be borne in mind in the echocardiographic examination, especially of conscious birds. A higher incidence of second degree atrioventricular block (30.23%) was induced by anesthesia in the Racing Pigeons. These results of the present study indicate the necessity for establishing normal heart values in conscious and anaesthetized individuals.

[Vergleichende Bestimmung von Gerinnungsparametern in Blutproben verschiedener Wild- und Ziervogelspezies]

OBJECTIVE

Information about the influence of species variety or diseases on coagulation values in avian blood is rare. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of species on measurements of coagulation parameters in avian plasma samples using commercially available reagents and to investigate potential influences of selected diseases on clotting times.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and thrombin time (TT) were measured in citrated plasma of healthy individuals collected from eight different wild and captive avian species applying currently commercially available reagents prepared for use in humans, which were preselected in preliminary studies. The same parameters were tested in plasma samples from birds affected by aspergillosis, atherosclerosis, neoplasia and traumata.

RESULTS

PT and aPTT showed a high interspecies variety. Irrespective of species, aPTTs were extremely long and partially exceeded the measurement range limit. Minor variations between species were seen in TT measurements. Clotting times obtained from birds affected by aspergillosis, atherosclerosis and neoplasia were not significantly different when compared to healthy birds. Plasma obtained from traumatised individuals showed significantly shorter PT and aPTT than that in healthy birds.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Differences between species must be considered in diagnostic coagulation measurements in avian blood. Regardless of the avian species, aPTT measurements on avian samples appear to be of limited value. Lower PT and aPTT values reflect coagulation activation in traumatised birds.

First detection of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in wild Eurasian Siskins (Carduelis spinus) in Germany. A case study

OBJECTIVE

The colonization of the gastric ascomycetous yeast Macrorhabdus (M.) ornithogaster could be associated with a chronic wasting disease in several bird species in captivity. The prevalence and clinical relevance of M. ornithogaster in wild birds is unknown in detail.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In the wintering season 2012/13 injured Eurasian Siskins (Carduelis spinus, n = 8) from the area of Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany were examined microbiologically and pathologically.

RESULTS

In six out of eight injured Eurasian Siskins M. ornithogaster were detected. The yeast was diagnosed microscopically in wet smears from the gastric isthmus and/or in faecal samples. Histopathological examination (n = 4) of the macroscopically slightly enlarged proventriculus in infected birds demonstrated the growth of M. ornithogaster in the mucosal surface and in the ducts of the glands without an inflammatory reaction. As a possible sign of a lowered fitness, all six infected siskins had a reduced body weight (mean: 11.8 ± 1.64 g) in the lower normal weight range compared to the two injured Eurasian Siskins without M. ornithogaster (15.0 g) as well as to data from the literature. Concurrent intestinal bacterial infections comprised Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens or Salmonella Typhimurium, that are regarded as an abnormal bacterial flora for Eurasian Siskins.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Infections with M. ornithogaster can be found in the wild population of Eurasian Siskins in Germany. The frequent occurrence of secondary bacterial infections associated with M. ornithogaster infections should be considered in the treatment and rehabilitation of finches.

Mercury concentrations in feathers of Common Swifts (Apus apus)

Mercury (Hg) has been well studied as a bioaccumulated contaminant in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. It has been found to have negative effects on carnivorous and piscivorous bird species with the highest Hg concentrations at the top of the food chain. The objective of this study was to increase our knowledge of mercury exposure in insectivorous birds, especially in a species of the family Apodidae. The Common Swift (Apus apus) that specialises on feeding on aerial plankton molts and winters as a long-distance migrant in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the breeding seasons 2011-2013 the concentrations of Hg in primary flight feathers (P8-P10) in juvenile (n = 35) and adult (n = 25) injured Common Swifts were examined in the area of Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany using cold vapour atomic absorption spectrometry. As a first reference, it was possible to determine feather Hg levels in adult (Mean ± SD: 0.53 mg/kg wet weight ± 0.37; Xmin-Xmax: 0.04-1.45 mg/kg; n = 25) as well as in juvenile Swifts (Mean ± SD: 0.11 mg/kg wet weight ± 0.06; Xmin-Xmax: 0.04-0.25 mg/kg; n = 35). The significant differences between the ages (p ≤ 0.001) are probably caused by differences in the feather growth, in accumulation of mercury for a longer time in adults as well as particularly in differences between mercury pollution in breeding and wintering ground. The mercury levels detected in swifts in this study are all below the range found by other authors to cause behavioural changes or reduced reproduction (5 mg/kg).

Methodical aspects of blood coagulation measurements in birds applying commercial reagents--a pilot study

The aim of this study was to examine the suitability of commercially available reagents for measurements of coagulation parameters in citrated plasma from birds. Therefore, plasma samples of 17 healthy donor birds of different species were used to determine prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and thrombin time (TT) applying various commercial reagents which are routinely used in coagulation diagnostics in humans and mammals. A PT reagent based on human placental thromboplastin yielded not only shorter clotting times than a reagent containing recombinant human tissue factor (median 49 vs. 84 s), but also showed a minor range of distribution of values (43-55 s vs. 30-147 s, minimum-maximum, n = 5 turkeys). An aPTT reagent containing kaolin and phospholipids of animal origin delivered the shortest clotting times and the lowest range of variation in comparison to three other reagents of different composition. However, even when this reagent was used, aPTTs were partially extremely long (> 200 s). Thrombin time was 38 s (28-57 s, n = 5 chicken) when measured with bovine thrombin at a final concentration of 2 IU thrombin/ ml. Coefficients of variation for within-run precision analysis (20 repetitions) of PT was 8.0% and 4.7% for aPTT measurements using selected reagents of mammalian origin. In conclusion, of the commercially available reagents tested, a PT reagent based on human placental thromboplastin and an aPTT reagent including rabbit brain phospholipid and kaolin, show some promise for potential use in birds.

[First detection of psittacid herpesvirus 2 in Congo African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) associated with pharyngeal papillomas and cloacal inflammation in Germany]

Congo African Grey Parrots (GP; Psittacus erithacus erithacus) from four different avicultures, presented in the Clinic for Exotic Pets, Reptiles and Birds, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, showed choanal papillomas or hyperemia of the cloacal mucosa. Histologically, the mucosal choanal proliferations were diagnosed as exophytic papillomas and a mild hyperplasia of the cloacal mucosa with lympho-histiocytic inflammation with no visible inclusion bodies was found. Herpesvirus genome was detected by nested PCR in pooled choanal and cloacal swabs from clinically diseased parrots and healthy contact animals. Sequencing of parts of the herpesvirus DNA-polymerase gene indicated 98-100% homology of the detected herpesviruses with the Psittacid Herpesvirus 2 (PsHV-2). In one aviculture with cloacal inflammation papillomavirus-DNA was concurrently found to a PsHV-2 infection. In addition to the four avicultures with clinical symptoms 25 more flocks of grey parrots, in total 57 Congo-GP and 13 Timneh-GP, were examined for a herpesvirus infection. A total of six out of 29 studied parrot avicultures were tested positive for PsHV-2. The detection of this virus also in flocks of GP, which were bred in Europe, shows the establishment of this infection in the GP population in captivity. As indicated in the literature as well as in our study PsHV-2 could be only detected in Congo-GP, independently if they were kept either alone or in mixed avicultures with amazon and macaw species. These findings suggest that PsHV-2 is adapted to this Psittacus species.

The use of conventional radiography and computer-assisted tomography as instruments for demonstration of gross pathological lesions in the cranium and cerebrum in the crested breed of the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f.dom.)

According to literature reports, the crested breed of the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) is described as a variety with high pre- and post-natal mortalities, malformations in skull and brain anatomy, and various central nervous deficiencies in affected birds. A detailed examination as to the cause and pathogenesis of these neurologic disorders has not yet been conducted, nor has an explanation concerning the inheritance of the feather crest been found. By using two non-invasive radiographic techniques, conventional radiography and computer-assisted tomography, living ducks were examined. Our studies have demonstrated that brain and skull anatomy of ducks of various breeds (Crested, Abacot Ranger, and German Pekin) can be well visualized using computer-assisted tomography. The Crested ducks investigated in this study showed abnormal fatty tissue deposits in the tentorium cerebelli, cranial malformations, and variable bone formations in the thickened hypodermis of the crest. In comparison with computer-assisted tomography, only parts of the skull changes were detected with conventional radiography; in no case could fat bodies be seen with this imaging method. An increase of the cranial capacity in the Crested ducks compared with other breeds examined (Abacot Ranger, German Pekin ducks) was found in morphometric studies carried out by computerassisted tomography. This increase of cranial capacity in Crested ducks results from an increase of the tentorial fatty depot during craniogenesis, as an enlargement of the fat body can influence cranium growth as long as the cranial bones are not yet fused. Thus, in comparison with other phenotypically similar domesticated birds like the crested chicken, the expression of the feather crest in domestic ducks demonstrates symptomatologic differences.

[Morphological studies in different avian species on artefacts induced by euthanasia with T 61 " or Pentobarbital (Narcoren)]

In mammals (e. g. macaques, dogs, cats, rats, sheep) as well as in men (suicides) euthanasia performed by intravenous injection of T 61 leads to serious lesions in lung, kidney or/and liver (endothelial damage, hyperemia, oedema, necrosis). This is caused by the solvent dimethylformamide (DMF). In this study, in contrast, in different species of birds (e. g. blackbird, carrion crow, kestrel, common buzzard, homer pigeon, common wood pigeon, mallard duck) and various modes of applications and dosages T 61, 1.0-3.0 ml/kg body mass, did not induce comparable artefacts in tissues of internal organs in the narcotized animals. Microscopically, only hyperemia and oedema of lung, kidney and/or liver were found. However, milder but similar lesions were detected also in groups of birds euthanized by pentobarbital (200 mg/kg body mass) as well as in control groups (overdosed ketamine intramusculary, 100 mg/kg body mass, and rapid exsanguination). In conclusion, euthanasia of narcotized birds performed by intravenous or intracardial injections ofT 61 seemed to be suitable. The observed lesions could therefore not be interpreted as T61 induced artefacts.

[Recommendations for the veterinary care and assessment of bird of prey collections]

Legislation from a new regulation of the Federal Nature Conservation Act that became effective on March 1, 2010 requires a written program for veterinary prophylaxis, treatment and nutrition for zoo and animal collections. As a result of this act, veterinary care is now obligatory for all captive birds of prey kept within either private or commercial collections, independent on the number of birds involved. The legal requirements of the Act will shortly be introduced and recommendations for the veterinary care of bird of prey collections are provided. Firstly, risk assessment of different husbandry systems (falconry birds, show birds, breeding stock, rehabilitation) is performed and veterinary care programs are provided based upon these assessments. Additionally, instructions for anamnestic ascertainments, work flow, feeding, quarantine, cleaning and disinfection procedures as well as prophylactic measures such as vaccination are provided. As husbandry, in particular the size and equipment of cages is important for the health and welfare of the birds, species specific housing, care and protection measures are also discussed. Veterinarians will be able to refer to these guidelines and can use them in the future for collection management.

[Detection of psittacid herpesvirus 1 in Amazon parrots with cloacal papilloma (internal papillomatosis of parrots, IPP) in an aviary of different psittacine species]

Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva aestiva;Amazona ochrocephala, n=6) from an aviary with different psittacine species (n=100) were submitted to the Clinic for Pet Animals, Reptiles, Pet- and Wild birds with the clinical picture ofa cloacal prolaps. The cloacal mucosa showed papillomas, and internal papillomatosis of parrots (IPP) was suspected. Hepatomegaly was detected in the radiographs of the clinically diseased amazon parrots, indicating the involvement of the liver in the disease process. The cloacal area was enlarged and showed higher densities in the radiographic picture. One of the amazons had an increased level of bile acids in the plasma supporting the suspicion of the involvement of the liver. Macroscopical and histological investigation of amazons with cloacal prolaps revealed a papillomic adenoma of the cloacal mucosa accompanied by varying degrees of bile duct carcinomas in the liver and adenocarcinomas of the pancreas. Herpesvirus genome was detected by nested PCR in cloacal swabs, liver, and cloacal tissue samples. Sequencing of part of the herpesvirus DNA-polymerase gene indicated 95% homology of the detected herpesviruses with the Psittacid Herpesvirus (PsHV) 1. No cytopathic herpesvirus was recovered from cloacal swabs and liver samples after up to four passages in chicken embryofibroblast cultures. Cloacal and choanal swabs, which were taken from the remaining 47 healthy amazon parrots and 5 Green-winged Macaws (Ara chloroptera) of the aviary, were negative for herpesvirus in the nested PCR. Only birds with cloacal papillomas and the Green-winged Macaws were tested positive for herpesvirus DNA in the nested PCR. We may speculate that there is correlation between the infection with PsHV-1 and the development of cloacal adenomas, adenocarcinomas in the pancreas and carcinomas of the bile ducts. Our results indicate that there may be a higher susceptibility in certain amazon species, while other species may not get infected even if housed in close contact to infected birds. A therapy approach with the immunomodulator Imiquimod did not improve the clinical disease of the birds, although circulating interferon levels were detected in serum samples of treated birds. We may speculate that in the case of already developed tumors an Imiquimod therapy may not lead to tumor regression.

Ataxia and disequilibrium in domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) with intracranial lipomas

Four birds in a flock of 125 purebred Crested ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) had cerebellar signs of unknown etiology. They had radiographically evident perforations of various sizes in the parieto-occipital calvaria. Gross necropsy of euthanatized ducks revealed yellow intracranial masses in the brain of each. Histologically, these masses were intracranial lipomas consisting of univacuolated fatty tissue separated into lobules by strands of connective tissue. The masses had caused serious deformation of the rostral part of the cerebellum, leading to a nearly complete flattening of cerebellar folia, and were interpreted as the cause for the central nervous clinical signs observed. These intracranial lipomas were similar to those previously reported in other animals and humans.

Magnetic resonance imaging of intracranial tissue accumulations in domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) with feather crests

The crested breed of domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) has been described as a variety which has high pre- and postnatal mortalities, malformations in skull and brain anatomy, and several central nervous deficiencies. In addition, intracranial tissue accumulations have been diagnosed in purebred Crested ducks. The incidence, heredity and inheritance of these accumulations as well as their pathogenesis are still generally unknown. The aims of this study were to examine the head of Crested ducks, plain-headed duck breeds, and their crossbreeding relating to the incidence of intracranial alterations. These examinations were performed using magnetic resonance imaging. We found a high incidence of intracranial tissue accumulations in domestic ducks with feather crests. Creasted ducks had more intracranial tissue deposits than plain-headed ducks (p < 0.001). In the present study a correlation between the volume of the crest cushion and the volume of the intracranial tissue deposit could not be found (r = 0.014). Some of the Crested ducks had encephaloceles in addition to the crest cushion.

Osteological investigations of the incidence of cranial alterations in domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) with feather crests

The feather crest of the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) represents a peculiar mutation of the integument of the head, which has been known since the 17th century. In literature this is described as a variety with malformations in skull and brain anatomy in which various central nervous deficiencies in affected birds are possible. Our examinations demonstrated several conspicuous anatomical alterations in the skulls of domestic ducks with feather crests. Osteophytes of different size in the hypodermis of the crest integument were found as well as cranial perforations located in the parieto-occipital region. In morphometric studies, a significant increase in the capacity of the cranium was found in Crested ducks compared to other examined breeds (Abacot Ranger, German Pekin ducks). This increase in cranial capacity in Crested ducks results from the occurrence and enlargement of a tentorial fatty depot during craniogenesis. The formation and enlargement of the fat body can influence cranium growth as long as the cranial bones are not entirely fused. Thus, in comparison to other phenotypically similar domesticated birds like the crested chicken, the expression of feather crests in domestic ducks demonstrates symptomatologic differences. In conclusion, our examinations demonstrate that the skulls of Crested ducks show various peculiar morphological alterations whose genesis is up to now not known with satisfactory accuracy. Further investigations are continuing to assertain whether there are linkages between cranial alterations (malformations of the calvaria, osteophytes, increased capacity of the cranium) and the extremely high prenatal and postnatal mortalities and numerous abnormalities described in crested breeds of the domestic duck.

[Plasma cholesterol determination in birds--a diagnostic tool for detection of organophosphate and carbamate intoxication]

An investigation was done on the clinical usefulness of the dry chemistry analyzer Vitros DT 60 II for determination of avian plasma cholinesterase. The analytical reliability of the method, evaluated by precision and accuracy, proved to be high for plasma of numerous pet and wild birds. Values of normal plasma-cholinesterase activity were established for different psittacine and European wild birds. Significant differences in physiologic plasma-cholinesterase activity were noted between closely related species as well as between juvenile and adult birds. These findings emphasize the necessity to use control values of the same species and age group for comparison. Dry chemistry plasma-cholinesterase determination can be used as a diagnostic tool for detection of organophosphate and carbamate poisonings in the majority of investigated birds.

[Preliminary examinations on the effects of the breed characteristic feature "feather crest" on skull and brain anatomy of domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.)]

As mentioned in older sources, the crested breed of the domestic duck is described as variety with high pre- and postnatal mortalities, malformations in skull and brain anatomy, and several central nervous deficiencies in affected birds. Therefore this breed is to be called defective and abnormal in the sense of section 11b of the German protection of animals legislation. Poultry fanciers reject these findings as incorrect, but accurate scientific examinations that bear out this allegation are not available. Preliminary examinations have demonstrated that brain and skull anatomy of living animals can be described by using non-invasive diagnostic techniques (magnet-resonance-imaging, computerized tomography, radiography). The use of this progressive methods enables to expressive findings on present stocks of domestic ducks. Many of the test animals investigated in preliminary examinations by using magnet-resonance-imaging and radiography showed abnormal tissue deposits in the tentorium cerebelli, meningo-encephalocele, cranial malformations, and variable bone formations in the thickened hypodermis of the crest. If crested ducks are mated against each other, numerous offspring show malformations of upper beak and cranium, encephalocele, as well as craniopagal parasites in form of rudimentary legs.

[Animal nutrition in veterinary medicine--actual case reports. Nutritionally related disturbences in bone development in emus and rheas]

Two cases of disturbed health and growth of the skeleton in emus and rheas caused by faults in feeding and mineral supply are reported. 13 of 37 emus developed (beginning in the 3rd week) more and more signs of perosis. The diet fed in this case was based mainly on pelleted diets for piglets and rabbits and unpelleted supplements. The ingesting behaviour (selective intake and refuse of fines and supplements) resulted in an imbalanced mineral intake. In the second case 3 of 15 young rheas showed unphysiological postures of the necks vertebral column. Disposed by an absolutely insufficient calcium supply (the real ingested diet was based on corn and white bread mainly) fractures of vertebrae were provoked by unprofessional handling. During the healing process (uncalcified) connective tissue near to fractures localization led to the abnormal posture of the neck.

[The clinical and radiological diagnosis of gastric foreign bodies in ornamental birds]

Sometimes curious foreign bodies placed in the proventriculus/ventriculus of companion birds are causes of single case diseases. Clinical signs include atypical symptoms such as distress, lameness, vomiting and diarrhea. In cases of heavy metal intoxication, e.g. lead poisoning, CNS-disorders are found. Radiographs taken in a ventro-dorsal and a latero-lateral view show the presence of foreign bodies in suspicion. In most cases of foreign bodies in birds a surgical intervention (Gastrotomy) is indicated.

[Clinical diagnosis and differential diagnosis in ornamental birds]

Clinical diagnosis in companion birds consists of well established procedures such as case history, clinical observation, physical examination and further special investigations, e.g. radiology, endoscopy or clinical chemistry. Also some peculiarities of the numerous bird species have to be taken into consideration. These are, for example, certain characteristics of the different species, the varieties of husbandry and environment as single caged birds or flocks in zoos and aviaries and, especially, the lack of typical clinical symptoms in most cases. In regard to those aspects, case history concerning aspects such as age, sex, feeding or course of the disease and special investigations in the case of single caged birds and diagnostic dissections and etiological laboratory examinations, e.g. microbiology, parasitology and toxicology, in the case of flock problems are of major significance. Examples of differential diagnosis in single caged birds, e.g. abnormal behaviour ("feather plucking"), gout, intestinal foreign bodies, tumors or pneumomycosis, and flock health problems, e.g. acariasis, canary pox, coccidiosis or bacterial infections complete this paper.

[Hygiene problems with ornamental birds in the household]

Approximately 8 million pet birds are kept in the Federal Republic of Germany. The number of households where these birds are living is insignificantly lower, and the birds are usually kept as singles. Hygienic problems can arise due to the close contact between humans and birds. In view of the different pet birds species originating from different biotopes, specific knowledge is often lacking regarding adequate housing, nutrition and general management. This can result in a decrease of natural resistance and therefore can lead to diseases of those birds. Therapy, performed by a nonveterinarian, usually does not only affect the birds, but also endangers the owners themselves. Especially, the carrier state of newly purchased birds with pathogens hazardous for human health has to be considered. Psittacosis has to be mentioned as one of the major zooanthroponoses deriving from birds. This requires to reconsider governmental measures to cope with this disease including policies of bird import as one of the major reasons for spreading the disease. Better management conditions can extend the life expectation of birds. This might also lower the fluctuation within the pet bird population and therefore biohazards for humans. Therefore, instruction and advice of pet bird-owners are necessary.

[Fixation of an upper beak fracture in a Moluccan cockatoo (C. moluccensis)]

In this report the successful stabilisation by full-pin external fixation of the fractured beak of a Moluccan Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) was described. Suppositions and the technique of this surgical procedure were discussed.