Consumer preferences and willingness to pay for safe pork products in rural Kenya

Designing interventions to support the safe development of rapidly growing livestock value chains in sub-Saharan Africa requires a clear understanding of consumer demands. This study aimed to determine purchase patterns, consumers' preferences, and willingness to pay for safe pork attributes; specifically, the presence of a veterinary inspection stamp and the cleanliness of the butchery. A discrete choice experiment-based survey was used to investigate the purchasing behavior of 401 pork consumers: 253 buying raw pork for household consumption, and 148 buying cooked pork for out-of-home consumption. The study findings indicate that the average quantity of pork purchased by consumers was approximately 0.4 Kg per transaction, with the majority of consumers making several purchases per week. The average price per Kg of pork was KES 310 (Approx. 2.60 USD) at the time of the study. Data from the choice experiment showed that consumers were willing to pay a price premium of KES 245 (Approx. 2.1 USD) and KES 164 (Approx. 1.4 USD) per Kg for evidence of better veterinary meat inspection and higher butchery hygiene respectively; further, these were the two most important attributes they considered while making a pork purchase decision. These findings highlight the potential to leverage consumers' willingness to pay to improve the food safety within pork value chains in this context. Investing to increase consumer awareness on food safety issues should be considered to generate an effective market demand, especially in rural areas with relatively lower literacy levels.

Mapping the flow of veterinary antibiotics in Kenya

Introduction

To effectively regulate and reduce antibiotic use, in the livestock sector, a thorough understanding of the flow of veterinary antibiotics will help to identify key nodes in the chain for targeted interventions. The aim of this study was to understand the flow of antibiotics from import to end-user, and identify relevant governance mechanisms.

Methods

A mixed methods approach was used to collect data in three Kenyan counties (Nairobi, Kiambu, and Kajiado). Focus group discussions (n = 23), individual interviews (n = 148), and key informant interviews (n = 10) were conducted.

Results

The key actors identified include primary wholesalers, secondary wholesalers, retailers, animal health service providers (AHSPs), and farmers. Kenya imports 100% of its veterinary antibiotics: primary wholesalers legally import antibiotics as finished pharmaceutical products (90%) or active pharmaceutical ingredients (10%) after approval by the Veterinary Medicines Directorate. Secondary wholesalers play a major role in the distribution of antibiotics (60% of antibiotics) from importers to farmers, AHSPs, and retailers. Some of the illegal sources of antibiotics include unlicenced/unauthorized middlemen and online platforms that sell directly to retailers, AHSPs, and farmers.

Discussion

Despite the presence of various laws and regulations governing the antibiotic value chain, implementation has been a challenge due to financial and human resource constraints. This contributes to over-the-counter sale of antibiotics without prescription, unlicensed businesses selling antibiotics, illegal importation, and presence of poor-quality drugs. There is a need to review the applicability of existing policies and address policy gaps (e.g., product containing antibiotic combinations, and use of human critically important antibiotics) to ensure the prudent sale and use of antibiotics, pharmacovigilance, antimicrobial use surveillance, and developing a business model that aligns with antibiotic stewardship. Additional interventions include awareness raising and capacity building of the different stakeholders along the antibiotic distribution chain to reduce antibiotic mis- and overuse.

Sympatric occurrence of Taenia saginata and Sarcocystis spp. in cattle from Narok County, Kenya: meat inspection findings with molecular validation

The epidemiological picture of Taenia saginata infections in Kenya is fragmented with limited available data. Although Sarcocystis species are significant meat-borne parasites, few studies have explored their occurrence in Kenya. This study aimed to estimate the occurrence of bovine cysticercosis and screen for the presence of Sarcocystis spp. A meat inspection-based survey was conducted in ten abattoirs in Narok County, Kenya, and inspection for T. saginata cysticerci was limited to the Triceps brachii muscle. The apparent occurrence of the parasite was 5.4% (95% CI, 3.8, 7.6, n=573). Molecular confirmation of T. saginata was done via nested polymerase chain reaction targeting the mitochondrial 12S ribosomal RNA gene and restricted fragment length polymorphism. Sarcocystis species were identified using a multiplex polymerase chain reaction method targeting the 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequences and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Of the 31 cystic lesions tested, 26/31 (83.9%) were confirmed to be T. saginata.Sarcocystis cruzi and S. hominis were detected in 8/31 (25.8%) and 1/31 (3.2%) of the cystic lesions, respectively. Co-infections of S. cruzi and T. saginata were found in 6/31 lesions (19.4%). The confirmation of bovine cysticercosis and S. hominis is suggestive of the presence of risky culinary and sanitation practices that facilitate transmission. This is the first report and molecular confirmation of Sarcocystis spp. in cattle in the country. The presence of both zoonotic S. hominis and pathogenic S. cruzi highlights an underexplored concern of veterinary and human health significance, warranting further epidemiological investigation.

Non-typhoidal salmonella contamination along the pork value chain in a rural East African setting: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) is a serious foodborne pathogen that has previously been isolated from pigs presented for slaughter in a rural pork value chain in western Kenya.

METHODS

To understand varying NTS contamination along the value chain we assessed prevalence at slaughter, transport and retail. Suspect isolates from culture were confirmed using matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time of flight mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Prevalence on pig carcasses, meat transportation containers, retailed raw and cooked pork and accompanying side salads was 18.1%, 23.9%, 28.0%, 1.9% and 8.6%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

NTS contamination is propagated along the pork value chain in rural western Kenya, demonstrating the need for improved hygiene measures to prevent human exposure.

Multidrug-resistant Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter lari isolated from asymptomatic school-going children in Kibera slum, Kenya

Background: The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in asymptomatic school-going children and establish the antibiotic resistance patterns of the isolates towards the drugs used to treat campylobacteriosis, including macrolides, quinolones and tetracycline. Campylobacter spp. are a leading cause of enteric illness and have only recently shown resistance to antibiotics. Methods: This study isolated Campylobacter spp., including Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter lari, in stool samples from asymptomatic school-going children in one of the biggest urban slums in Kenya. The disc diffusion method using EUCAST breakpoints was used to identify antibiotic-resistant isolates, which were further tested for genes encoding for tetracycline resistance using primer-specific polymerase chain reaction. Results: In total, 580 stool samples were collected from 11 primary schools considering both gender and age. Subjecting 294 biochemically characterized Campylobacter spp. isolates to genus-specific PCR, 106 (18.27% of stool samples) isolates were confirmed Campylobacter spp. Out of the 106 isolates, 28 (4.83%) were Campylobacter coli, 44 (7.58%) were Campylobacter jejuni while 11 (1.89%) were Campylobacter lari. Campylobacter jejuni had the highest number of isolates that were multi-drug resistant, with 26 out of the 28 tested isolates being resistant to ciprofloxacin (5 mg), nalidixic acid (30 mg), tetracycline (30 mg) and erythromycin (15 mg). Conclusions: In conclusion, asymptomatic school going children in the study area were found to be carriers of multidrug resistant Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter lari at 84%. A one-health approach, which considers overlaps in environment, animals and human ecosystems, is recommended in addressing multidrug resistane in Campylobacter, since animals are the main reservoirs and environmental contamination is evident.

Perceived risk factors and risk pathways of Rift Valley fever in cattle in Ijara district, Kenya

Ijara district in Kenya was one of the hotspots of Rift Valley fever (RVF) during the 2006/2007 outbreak, which led to human and animal deaths causing major economic losses. The main constraint for the control and prevention of RVF is inadequate knowledge of the risk factors for its occurrence and maintenance. This study was aimed at understanding the perceived risk factors and risk pathways of RVF in cattle in Ijara to enable the development of improved community-based disease surveillance, prediction, control and prevention. A cross-sectional study was carried out from September 2012 to June 2013. Thirty-one key informant interviews were conducted with relevant stakeholders to determine the local pastoralists' understanding of risk factors and risk pathways of RVF in cattle in Ijara district. All the key informants perceived the presence of high numbers of mosquitoes and large numbers of cattle to be the most important risk factors contributing to the occurrence of RVF in cattle in Ijara. Key informants classified high rainfall as the most important (12/31) to an important (19/31) risk factor. The main risk pathways were infected mosquitoes that bite cattle whilst grazing and at watering points as well as close contact between domestic animals and wildlife. The likelihood of contamination of the environment as a result of poor handling of carcasses and aborted foetuses during RVF outbreaks was not considered an important pathway. There is therefore a need to conduct regular participatory community awareness sessions on handling of animal carcasses in terms of preparedness, prevention and control of any possible RVF epizootics. Additionally, monitoring of environmental conditions to detect enhanced rainfall and flooding should be prioritised for preparedness.

A survey of bovine cysticercosis/human taeniosis in Northern Turkana District, Kenya

Bovine cysticercosis is a zoonosis that is mainly of socioeconomic and public health importance. A survey of this disease was carried out in Northern Turkana District, Kenya to estimate the prevalence through both serology and meat inspection, to determine the prevalence of the adult tapeworm in the human definitive host, and to determine risk factors for cattle seropositivity. This information is of public health importance and will be of use in assessing economic losses due to downgrading, refrigeration or condemnation of infested carcasses. The study area was stratified into the three livestock grazing regions of Oropoi to the south, Lokichoggio-Mogilla centrally and Kibish in the north for the purposes of the serological and questionnaire (n = 53 herd owners) data. Five adakaars (grazing units) were selected and 34, 63, 49, 75 and 571 cattle serum samples obtained from these. The slaughter slabs of Lokichoggio and Kakuma were visited and 188 serum samples were obtained from slaughter cattle and compared to results of meat inspection. Human stool samples were collected in each of the three grazing areas and 66, 97 and 78 samples were obtained. The seroprevalence of cysticercosis in cattle was estimated at 16.7% (95% CI 13-20.9%) using a secretory-excretory antigen detection ELISA. There was poor agreement between meat inspection and serology (k = 0.025; p = 0.2797). The prevalence of taeniosis was estimated as 2.5% (95% CI 0.8-5.6%) by microscopy. A backwards elimination logistic regression analysis indicated that the grazing unit (Adakaar), the deworming history of household members and the distance (>2 km) of grazing fields from the homestead were significant explanatory variables for cattle being found to be positive on serology. An intra-cluster correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.07 (0.02-0.12); p < 0.0001 was calculated for bovine cysticercosis in this area.

The socio-economic impact of important camel diseases as perceived by a pastoralist community in Kenya

This paper presents the results of a study conducted in a pastoral community in Kenya using participatory appraisal approaches. The objective of the study was to assess the socio-economic impact of camel trypanosomosis (surra) according to the perceptions of the pastoralists. Four livestock grazing units were conveniently selected and in each of them, three groups of key informants comprising five to eight persons were selected for the participatory exercises. Five camel diseases were listed in order of importance according to their severity and frequency of occurrence including trypanosomosis, mange, non-specific diarrhoea, tick infestations and haemorrhagic septicaemia. The losses listed as incurred due to the five diseases were: losses in milk, meat, blood, fats and hides, dowry payments, and depreciation in sale of animals, losses due to infertility and abortions, and losses due to the cost of treatment. There was good agreement (P < 0.05) between the informant groups on the losses incurred as a result of the diseases for all the selected loss indicators. Surra and mange were given high median scores on all the indicators while non-specific diarrhoea, tick infestations, and haemorrhagic septicaemia received moderate median scores. Based on the study findings it is concluded that the camel plays a central role in the lives of Turkana pastoralists and that surra has a devastating social and economic impact. There is a need for veterinary and policy decision-makers to focus more attention on the control of surra in this arid and semi-arid area of Kenya.

Community Perceptions of Important Camel Diseases in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya

This paper presents the results of a study conducted in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya, to estimate the incidence and mortality of camel trypanosomosis using participatory methods. Four livestock camps ('adakars') were conveniently selected for the study. Four informant groups comprising 6 8 key persons were used for the participatory exercises. The camel diseases identified by the pastoralists in their order of importance according to annual incidence were: trypanosomosis (11.4%); mange (10.8%); tick infestation (7.9%); haemorrhagic septicaemia (7.7%); and non-specific diarrhoea (7.6%). Almost half (49.3%) of the camel population suffered from at least one disease over the previous year. The annual incidence and mortality rates of trypanosomosis were estimated at 15%, and 9.9%, in adult camels and 6.9% and 5.2%, in young camels, respectively. There was a seasonal occurrence of trypanosomosis, with most cases reported in the dry season. The prevalence levels of the disease reportedly declined from about 100%, in 1978 to an almost stable state of about 15% in 2002. This study revealed that camel trypanosomosis is still an important disease in Turkana District, exacting a heavy toll in terms of morbidity and mortality. The economic losses due to the disease were likely to have been great owing to the central role the camel plays in this arid district of Kenya.

Characterisation of shops selling veterinary medicines in a tsetse-infested area of Kenya

In a tsetse-infested area of Kenya, we characterised veterinary-drug outlets based on personnel and business characteristics to assess their capacities to provide clinical veterinary services. Structured questionnaires were administered to the retailers and sought information on the characteristics of the owners, salespersons and businesses. A total of 41 retail outlets (20 agro-veterinary, 11 pharmacy, and 10 general shops) were identified. There was poor response to questions on owner characteristics. Proprietors, who had no more than secondary education owned 15 out of 28 shops. Few shops (4/29) were owned by proprietors, who had professional qualifications (in animal health). Most salespersons had only secondary education but no qualifications. Animal-health assistants (AHAs), veterinarians and manufacturer's package inserts (drug leaflets) were the preferred information sources for the retailers. We concluded that drug retailers were poorly equipped with the technical knowledge necessary for drug dispensation and advice.

Bacteriological qualities of indoor and out-door drinking water in Kibera sub-location of Nairobi, Kenya

OBJECTIVES

To compare the bacteriological quality of out-house (tank or standpipe) water and in-house drinking water (storage containers) and determine the risk factors influencing it.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study.

SETTING

The study was carried out in Kibera slums located 7 km southwest from the Nairobi City centre.

SUBJECTS

Water samples from twenty outside tanks/standpipes and sixty from in-house water storage containers.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Pour plate method was used to enumerate total bacterial counts in water, while the multiple tube technique was used to determine faecal coliform (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS) numbers. A questionnaire and environmental observation were used to determine the risk factors influencing bacteriological quality of water.

RESULTS

The mean total bacterial counts (TBC) for out-house water was 46.6 per 100 ml while that for in-house water was 818.2 per 100 ml. Faecal coliforms were isolated from 7 (35%) standpipes and 57 (95%) in-house storage containers. The mean faecal coliform count was 93 and 103.4 per 100 ml for out-house and in-house water, respectively. The counts were significantly higher in the latter. Faecal streptococci were isolated from 2 (10%) standpipes and 37 (61.7%) in-house storage containers. The mean faecal streptococci counts were 35 and 65 per 100 ml for out-house and in-house water sources, respectively. Escherichia coli was isolated in 2 (10%) of out-house water and 30 (50%) of in-house. Of these, four were enteropathogenic, serotype 011 from one out-house water source and serotypes 011, 011, 0112ac from in-house water sources.

CONCLUSIONS

Bacteriological contamination of water at the source with a further deterioration between the collection points and homes was observed. A defective water delivery system and inadequate environmental sanitation were a potential source of contamination for out-house water. Scoops were a major source of contamination for stored water.

A study of cystic echinococcosis in slaughter animals in three selected areas of northern Turkana, Kenya

In an attempt to establish the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis, a study was conducted in slaughter animals in three divisions of northern Turkana, Kenya. A total of 5752 goats, 588 sheep, 381 cattle and 70 camels were examined at slaughter. Echinococcus granulosus metacestodes were found in 19.4% of the cattle, 3.6% of sheep, 4.5% of goats and 61.4% of camels. The prevalence of cystic echinococcosis in cattle, sheep and goats was higher in Lokichogio than in either Kakuma or Central divisions. On the other hand, the prevalence of the disease in camels was higher in Central (84.6%) than either Lokichogio (70.6%) or Kakuma (50%). The differences in prevalence rates in different study areas are attributed to differences in environmental conditions, livestock stocking intensity and cross-border migration of livestock.

Antimicrobial resistance of bacterial organisms isolated from rats

OBJECTIVE

To determine if antimicrobial resistance occurs in various bacterial species isolated from rats.

METHOD

Two hundred and fifteen rats were trapped from areas in and around Nairobi, Kenya. They were sacrificed and their intestinal, liver and spleen specimens obtained. Various bacterial species were isolated from these specimens. The species were analysed for antimicrobial susceptibility to 12 commonly used antimicrobials using the disc diffusion technique.

RESULTS

The bacterial species isolated included pathogenic and potentially pathogenic ones such as Escherichia coli 137, Salmonella typhimurium 1, Klebsiella pneumoniae 2, Enterobacter cloacae 4, Enterobacter sakazakii 2, Citrobacter freundii 3, Morganella morganii (2), Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2 and Burkhoddria cepacia 6. Depending on the species, the resistance to the various antimicrobials were: 0-100% for cefotaxime, nalidixic acid, cefuroxime, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, co-amoxyclav, sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, trimethoprim and cephradine, 0-66.6% for gentamicin and 0-25% for apramycin.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that, rats from the study area harboured bacterial species with antimicrobial resistance. These micro-organisms may form an important reservoir for antibiotic resistance which could pose a public health hazard. Control of rat populations, better management of sewer systems and waste dumping sites are recommended in order to reduce occurrence of these drug resistance reservoirs.

Antimicrobial susceptibility and plasmids from Escherichia coli isolated from rats

OBJECTIVES

To determine if antimicrobial resistance occurs in E. coli isolated from rats and if this resistance is transferable via plasmids.

METHODS

Sixty Escherichia coli isolates obtained from 215 rats trapped in and around Nairobi, Kenya, were analysed for antimicrobial susceptibility to eleven commonly used antimicrobials. Plasmid DNA analysis and in-vitro conjugation tests were conducted on twenty two resistant isolates.

RESULTS

A total of 12 (20%) E. coli were resistant to at least one of the commonly used drugs including ampicillin, sulphamethoxazole and streptomycin. Eight (13.3%) isolates were multidrug resistant. The drug resistant E. coli fell into five plasmid profile groups with plasmids ranging between two and 98 megadaltons (Mda). Resistance to ampicillin was transferable.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that rats from the study area may form an important reservoir for drug-resistant E. coli that could pose a public health hazard.

Study of brucellosis in a pastoral community and evaluation of the usefulness of clinical signs and symptoms in differentiating it from other flu-like diseases

A study of differentials causing flu-like symptoms (malaria, typhoid, streptococcal infections and rheumatoid arthritis) in 488 patients from a pastoralist area is presented. The potential usefulness of clinical signs, symptoms and diagnostic tests in ruling-in or ruling-out these diseases was investigated in the District hospital and three outlying health dispensaries. For each patient a detailed clinical history plus diagnostic test for brucellosis, typhoid, streptococcal infections and rheumatoid arthritis, and for some patients malaria were conducted. Incidence levels of these diseases were estimated using laboratory test results; brucellosis, 13%, typhoid, 40%: streptococcal infections, 6% malaria, 9%: and rheumatoid arthritis, 10%. Brucellosis could not be differentiated clinically from the other flu-like diseases but rheumatoid arthritis could.

Toxin production and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli river water isolates

OBJECTIVES

To establish the types of E. coli isolates that are found in river water around Nairobi and to assess the potential risk of use of this water to human health.

DESIGN

Multiple stratified sampling was carried out. Surface sampling was used in the entire study.

SETTING

The study was carried out on river waters surrounding Nairobi, Kenya.

SUBJECTS

Forty Escherichia coli strains isolated from river water.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Serotyping, toxin gene tests and susceptibility to tetracyclines, ampicillin, chloramphenicol and kanamycin were analysed.

RESULTS

None of the isolates could be specifically serotyped using the available antisera. Toxin gene production tests using the colony hybridisation technique revealed that nine (22.5%) of the strains were positive for heat stable (ST) toxin, seven (17.5%) to the heat labile (LT) toxin and two (5%) to both. Using the Agar Disk Diffusion technique, eighty per cent of the strains were susceptible to all four antibiotics, while twenty per cent of the strains showed multiple resistance. None of the strains was resistant to all four antibiotics while no strain showed resistance to kanamycin.

CONCLUSION

None of the E. coli isolates was serotypable and it was therefore not possible to determine whether serologically identical strains of ETEC were haboured by man or animals. Toxin gene tests results showed that there is some risk of infection by diarrhoea causing ETEC to man and animals. Toxin gene tests results showed that there is some risk of infection by diarrhoea causing ETEC to man and animals if they consume this water untreated and there is evidence to show resistance of bacteria to antibiotics, hence appropriate health measures should be adhered to.

Assessment of the Rose-Bengal plate test for the diagnosis of human brucellosis in health facilities in Narok district, Kenya

The Rose-Bengal plate test (RBPT) was performed on 488 patients with flu-like symptoms from Narok district. There was poor agreement between RBPT results from four health facilities in Narok and from the central veterinary laboratory (CVL). Agreement was poorer for the three rural dispensaries than for the District Hospital. On the other hand, for tests conducted at the CVL, there was good agreement between RBPT, serum agglutination test (SAT) and complement fixation test (CFT) results, indicating that all these tests were probably performing well. Better training and quality control and the use of white rather than a clear background surface for judging agglutination results are recommended to improve the performance of test results in Narok District health facilities.

Echinococcosis in Kenya: transmission characteristics, incidence and control measures

Kenya has the highest reported incidence of human hydatid disease in the world. Up to about 30% of cattle, 15% of goats and 13% of sheep harbour the infection. The causative agent of the disease in Kenya is Echinococcus granulosus and a complex strain picture of this parasite has been postulated to occur. The domestic dog is the main definitive host of E. granulosus in Kenya but infection in wild carnivores has also been reported. Hydatid cysts have also been found in wild herbivores. Although the domestic cycle has been shown to be the most important mode of transmission of the disease, a sylvatic cycle is also known to exist. The etiology of hydatid disease, the strain differentiation of E. granulosus found in Kenya, and the role that wildlife plays in the transmission cycle is reviewed. The current trends in the incidence of hydatid disease in man and livestock, and the efforts being made to control the disease are also discussed.

Application of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on two E. granulosus antigens in the diagnosis of human hydatidosis

A total of 180 sera consisting of 50 sera from Kenyans with surgically confirmed hydatidosis and 130 sera from individuals without hydatid disease were examined. "Antigen 880" (which is suspected to be similar to Antigen B) showed a sensitivity of 88%. No false reactions were obtained with sera from individuals with non-hydatid infections, hence a specificity of 100% was recorded with this antigen. "Antigen 346" (which is similar to Capron's "Arc 5") showed a sensitivity of 52% and a specificity of 100%. It is concluded that "Antigen 880" may be more useful than "Arc 5" in the diagnosis of human hydatidosis in Kenya due to the high sensitivity obtained with the antigen.