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Kongsawasdi S, Brown JL, Boonprasert K, Pongsopawijit P, Wantanajittikul K, Khammesri S, Tajarernmuang T, Thonglorm N, Kanta-In R, Thitaram C. Impact of Weight Carriage on Joint Kinematics in Asian Elephants Used for Riding. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082423. [PMID: 34438880 PMCID: PMC8388651 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Riding elephants is one of the most controversial activities in the tourist industry, with concerns over whether load carrying is physically harmful. Here, we used an empirical approach to test how carrying loads up to 15% of the elephant’s body mass affected gait parameters. The maximal angles of fore- and hindlimb joints of elephants walking at a normal, self-selected speed carrying a mahout only were first evaluated and then compared to those walking with a saddle carrying two people plus added weight to reach a 15% body mass load. Data were analyzed using a computerized three-dimensional inertial measurement system. There were no significant differences between movement angles, including flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction of the fore- or hindlimbs between these two riding conditions. Thus, we found no evidence that carrying two people in a saddle causes significant changes in gait patterns or potentially affects musculoskeletal function. More studies are needed to further test longer durations of riding on different types of terrain to develop appropriate working guidelines for captive elephants. Nevertheless, elephants appear capable of carrying significant amounts of weight on the back without showing signs of physical distress. Abstract Background: Elephants in Thailand have changed their roles from working in the logging industry to tourism over the past two decades. In 2020, there were approximately 2700 captive elephants participating in activities such as riding and trekking. During work hours, riding elephants carry one or two people in a saddle on the back with a mahout on the neck several hours a day and over varying terrain. A concern is that this form of riding can cause serious injuries to the musculoskeletal system, although to date there have been no empirical studies to determine the influence of weight carriage on kinematics in elephants. Methods: Eight Asian elephants from a camp in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, aged between 21 and 41 years with a mean body mass of 3265 ± 140.2 kg, were evaluated under two conditions: walking at a normal speed without a saddle and with a 15% body mass load (saddle and two persons plus additional weights). Gait kinematics, including the maximal angles of fore- and hindlimb joints, were determined using a novel three-dimensional inertial measurement system with wireless sensors. Results: There were no statistical differences between movement angles and a range of motion of the fore- and hindlimbs, when an additional 15% of body mass was added. Conclusion: There is no evidence that carrying a 15% body mass load causes significant changes in elephant gait patterns. Thus, carrying two people in a saddle may have minimal effects on musculoskeletal function. More studies are needed to further test longer durations of riding on different types of terrain to develop appropriate working guidelines for captive elephants. Nevertheless, elephants appear capable of carrying significant amounts of weight on the back without showing signs of physical distress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siriphan Kongsawasdi
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.K.); (T.T.); (N.T.); (R.K.-I.)
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Khajohnpat Boonprasert
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
| | - Pornsawan Pongsopawijit
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kittichai Wantanajittikul
- Department of Radiologic Technology, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand;
| | - Siripat Khammesri
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
| | - Tanapong Tajarernmuang
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.K.); (T.T.); (N.T.); (R.K.-I.)
| | - Nipaporn Thonglorm
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.K.); (T.T.); (N.T.); (R.K.-I.)
| | - Rungtiwa Kanta-In
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (S.K.); (T.T.); (N.T.); (R.K.-I.)
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health and Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (J.L.B.); (K.B.); (P.P.); (S.K.)
- Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-53-948015
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Bansiddhi P, Nganvongpanit K, Brown JL, Punyapornwithaya V, Pongsopawijit P, Thitaram C. Management factors affecting physical health and welfare of tourist camp elephants in Thailand. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6756. [PMID: 31086730 PMCID: PMC6487189 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Variation in management across elephant camps likely has differential effects on the well-being of elephants. Methods This study calculated body condition, foot health and skin wound scores (WSs) for 122 elephants from 15 elephant camps in Chiang Mai province, and examined relationships to management factors using a multi-variable modeling approach. Results The majority of elephants had high body condition scores (BCS) indicative of being overweight or obese, mild foot problems, but few visible wounds. Females had higher BCSs than males, as did elephants provided a water source at night. Increasing age was associated with higher foot and WSs. Higher WSs were observed in about a quarter of the cases where mahouts carried a hook. Wounds related to saddle riding were rare. Elephants that rested on sand floors at night had a decreased risk of high WSs compared to elephants that rested on compact dirt floors. Discussion Findings emphasize the need for elephant camps to adjust management activities that negatively affect body condition (e.g., feeding too many sweet treats), foot health (e.g., hard substrates) and wounding (e.g., misuse of equipment) to improve health and welfare of this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pakkanut Bansiddhi
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Korakot Nganvongpanit
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Excellent Center of Veterinary Public Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pornsawan Pongsopawijit
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.,Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Aronthippaitoon Y, Samer W, Atuntee T, Thananchai H, Thongkorn K, Pongsopawijit P, Inoue S, Noguchi A, Park ES, Kawai A, Petsophonsakul W. A Cost Effective Easy Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Suitable for Monitoring Protective Immunity against the Rabies Virus in the Serum of Humans and Dogs. Jpn J Infect Dis 2018; 72:99-105. [PMID: 30381684 DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2018.248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The coverage of rabies vaccinations has been reported at 70-80% of dogs in annual reports. However, there are still outbreaks of rabies among humans and dogs in Thailand, thus indicating the necessity of ensuring seroprevalence in vaccinated dogs and efficacy of human immunization. A cost effective easy competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CEE-cELISA) was developed here for monitoring protective immunity against the rabies virus in human and dog serum samples using monoclonal antibody clone 1-46-12, which recognizes a conformational epitope of the rabies G protein. The ELISA plate is coated with the whole viral antigen from a commercial vaccine. The serotiter measured by the CEE-cELISA and by the gold standard assay (rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test), detecting the neutralizing antibody, showed a strong correlation, with an R value of 0.958 and 0.931 in humans and dogs, respectively. These correlations were detected in the serum samples from humans and dogs at antibody concentrations up to 100 and 10 IU/ml, respectively. This CEE-cELISA could be an alternative assay for evaluating mass rabies vaccination rapidly at a low cost as well as for detecting antirabies antibodies in the serum of not only humans but also other animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Waraporn Samer
- Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University
| | - Thitima Atuntee
- Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University
| | | | | | | | - Satoshi Inoue
- Department of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Akira Noguchi
- Department of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | - Eun-Sil Park
- Department of Veterinary Science, National Institute of Infectious Diseases
| | | | - Wilaiwan Petsophonsakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University.,Lanna Dog Welfare, Humane Education Center
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McCleery EJ, Patchanee P, Pongsopawijit P, Chailangkarn S, Tiwananthagorn S, Jongchansittoe P, Dantrakool A, Morakote N, Phyu H, Wilkins PP, Noh JC, Phares C, O'Neal S. Taeniasis among Refugees Living on Thailand-Myanmar Border, 2012. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 21:1824-6. [PMID: 26401787 PMCID: PMC4593425 DOI: 10.3201/eid2110.141657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We tested refugee camp residents on the Thailand–Myanmar border for Taenia solium infection. Taeniasis prevalence was consistent with that for other disease-endemic regions, but seropositivity indicating T. solium taeniasis was rare. Seropositivity indicating cysticercosis was 5.5% in humans, and 3.2% in pigs. Corralling pigs and providing latrines may control transmission of these tapeworms within this camp.
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Nakgoi K, Nitatpattana N, Wajjwalku W, Pongsopawijit P, Kaewchot S, Yoksan S, Siripolwat V, Souris M, Gonzalez JP. Dengue, Japanese encephalitis and Chikungunya virus antibody prevalence among captive monkey (Macaca nemestrina) colonies of Northern Thailand. Am J Primatol 2013; 76:97-102. [PMID: 24105916 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2013] [Revised: 08/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The potential of macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina in Thailand to be infected by endemic arboviruses was assessed. The prevalence of antibodies of three arboviruses actively circulating in Thailand was determined by Plaque Reduction Neutralization assay procedures using samples from captive colonies in Northern Thailand. Out of 38 macaques, 9 (24%) presented reacting antibodies against dengue virus, 5 (13%) against Japanese encephalitis virus, and 4 (10%) against Chikungunya virus. Our results indicate that the northern pig-tailed macaque in Thailand can be infected by these arboviruses, inferring therefore that their virus specific vectors have bitten them. Given that, northern pig-tailed macaque represents an abundant population, living in close range to human or in peridomestic setting, they could play a role as potential reservoir host for arboviruses circulating in Thailand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khajornpong Nakgoi
- Center for Vaccine Development, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University at Salaya Putthamonthon 4, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
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Thitaram C, Chansitthiwet S, Pongsopawijit P, Brown JL, Wongkalasin W, Daram P, Roongsri R, Kalmapijit A, Mahasawangkul S, Rojanasthien S, Colenbrander B, van der Weijden GC, van Eerdenburg FJ. Use of genital inspection and female urine tests to detect oestrus in captive Asian elephants. Anim Reprod Sci 2009; 115:267-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2008.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2008] [Revised: 11/03/2008] [Accepted: 11/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Thitaram C, Pongsopawijit P, Chansitthiwet S, Brown JL, Nimtragul K, Boonprasert K, Homkong P, Mahasawangkul S, Rojanasthien S, Colenbrander B, van der Weijden GC, van Eerdenburg FJCM. Induction of the ovulatory LH surge in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): a novel aid in captive breeding management of an endangered species. Reprod Fertil Dev 2009; 21:672-8. [PMID: 19486604 DOI: 10.1071/rd08296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A unique feature of the reproductive physiology of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is the occurrence of two LH surges before ovulation, instead of one. An anovulatory LH (anLH) surge, the function of which is unknown, occurs consistently 3 weeks before the ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge that induces ovulation. Thus, the ability to induce an ovLH surge would be useful for scheduling natural mating or artificial insemination. The present study tested the efficacy of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH-Ag) to induce LH surges during the follicular phase of the oestrous cycle, which resulted in varied LH responses, but generally none were as high as previously documented natural surges. Thus, for the ovulation-induction trials, nine females were administered 80 microg GnRH-Ag intravenously at three time periods during the oestrous cycle, namely the anovulatory follicular phase, the ovulatory follicular phase and the luteal phase. During the late anovulatory follicular phase, nine of 10 females (90%) responded with an immediate LH surge followed 15-22 days later by an ovLH surge or a post-ovulatory increase in progestagens. In contrast, despite responding to the GnRH-Ag with an immediate increase in LH, none of the females treated during other periods of the oestrous cycle exhibited subsequent ovLH surges. One cow got pregnant from natural mating following the induced ovLH surge. In conclusion, ovLH induction is possible using a GnRH-Ag, but only during a specific time of the anovulatory follicular phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50100, Thailand.
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Thitaram C, Brown JL, Pongsopawijit P, Chansitthiwet S, Wongkalasin W, Daram P, Roongsri R, Kalmapijit A, Mahasawangkul S, Rojansthien S, Colenbrander B, van der Weijden GC, van Eerdenburg FJCM. Seasonal effects on the endocrine pattern of semi-captive female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): timing of the anovulatory luteinizing hormone surge determines the length of the estrous cycle. Theriogenology 2007; 69:237-44. [PMID: 17997149 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2007.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2007] [Revised: 09/02/2007] [Accepted: 09/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Better breeding strategies for captive Asian elephants in range countries are needed to increase populations; this requires a thorough understanding of their reproductive physiology and factors affecting ovarian activity. Weekly blood samples were collected for 3.9 years from 22 semi-captive female Asian elephants in Thai elephant camps to characterize LH and progestin patterns throughout the estrous cycle. The duration of the estrous cycle was 14.6+/-0.2 weeks (mean+/-S.E.M.; n=71), with follicular and luteal phases of 6.1+/-0.2 and 8.5+/-0.2 weeks, respectively. Season had no significant effect on the overall length of the estrous cycle. However, follicular and luteal phase lengths varied among seasons and were negatively correlated (r=-0.658; P<0.01). During the follicular phase, the interval between the decrease in progestin concentrations to baseline and the anovulatory LH (anLH) surge varied in duration (average 25.9+/-2.0 days, range 7-41, n=23), and was longer in the rainy season (33.4+/-1.8 days, n=10) than in both the winter (22.2+/-4.5 days, n=5; P<0.05) and summer (18.9+/-2.6 days, n=8; P<0.05). By contrast, the interval between the anLH and ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge was more consistent (19.0+/-0.1 days, range 18-20, n=14). Thus, seasonal variation in estrous cycle characteristics were mediated by endocrine events during the early follicular phase, specifically related to timing of the anLH surge. Overall reproductive hormone patterns in Thai camp elephants were not markedly different from those in western zoos. However, this study was the first to more closely examine how timing of the LH surges impacted estrous cycle length in Asian elephants. These findings, and the ability to monitor reproductive hormones in range countries (and potentially in the field), should improve breeding management of captive and semi-wild elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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Thitaram C, Pongsopawijit P, Thongtip N, Angkavanich T, Chansittivej S, Wongkalasin W, Somgird C, Suwankong N, Prachsilpchai W, Suchit K, Clausen B, Boonthong P, Nimtrakul K, Niponkit C, Siritepsongklod S, Roongsri R, Mahasavankul S. Dystocia following prolonged retention of a dead fetus in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Theriogenology 2006; 66:1284-91. [PMID: 16716380 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2005] [Revised: 03/28/2006] [Accepted: 04/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A 32-year-old nulliparous female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) showed signs of parturition 8 months later than predicted from the breeding records. However, while serosanguineous fluid, necrotic tissue and pieces of amnion were expelled, second-stage labor did not progress. Since the fetus was not found during an endoscopic examination of the vestibule, it was assumed that the elephant had calved unseen and she was returned to the forest to recuperate. Twelve months later, the elephant showed clear signs of second-stage labor accompanied by a bulge in the perineum and passage of keratinized nail through the vulva. A 35 cm episiotomy incision was made in the perineum just below the anus, via which chains were attached to the forelimbs of the fetus. Traction on the forelimbs alone proved insufficient to achieve delivery because the fetal head kept rotating and impacting in the pelvis. However, traction applied via a hook inserted behind the mandibular symphysis allowed the head to be elevated and extended, and the fetus to be delivered. The episiotomy wound was sutured in two layers and although the skin did not heal during primary closure it subsequently healed uneventfully by second intention. Retrospective evaluation of the elephant's serum progestagens profile demonstrated a fall to baseline at the suspected onset of parturition, supporting the supposition that the fetus was retained in the uterus for 12 months after parturition began. It is suggested that serum progestagens concentrations should be monitored regularly in mated elephant cows to verify the establishment of pregnancy and to better estimate the expected timing, and the onset of calving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand.
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