Hunters' preferences and perceptions as hunting predictors in a semiarid ecosystem

Game meat is a resource widely exploited by rural populations in various parts of the world. In recent decades, the growth in the number of people living near conserved areas has increased the demand for game meat. In this work, based on the Social-ecological Theory of Maximization, we seek to verify the influence of cost-benefit ratio, availability, and subjective preferences (flavor) in the selection of hunted species. We interviewed game-eating people in seven communities in the Brazilian semiarid region, recording information on hunting strategies, flavor preferences, and relative abundance of game fauna. We found that people hunt for the most available species regardless of the cost-benefit of this choice. Also, flavor preference can increase the odds of a species being hunted almost 100%. Our data show that hunters may prefer species that require less capture effort, even though they have energy-efficient alternatives. We found that flavor preference is proportionally the variable with the most significant effect on the chances of a species being hunted, suggesting that traditional optimal foraging models are too simple to cover the complexity involved in the selection of game species.

Historical Shark Meat Consumption and Trade Trends in a Global Richness Hotspot

Shark catches have increased worldwide, threatening the survival of several species. This study describes historical trends concerning shark consumption and commercialization by artisanal fishers in northeastern Brazil. Semi-structured questionnaires were applied and respondents pointed out that sharks used to be locally regarded as low-quality fish in the past and rejected by fish consumers, with low fisher consumption frequency. However, this has changed in recent decades, as a total of 95.4% (n=62) of the questionnaire respondents reported currently consuming shark meat, while 61.5% (n=40) highlighted its high quality. In addition, most interviewees (90.8%; n=59) reported decreasing numbers of sharks caught over time, following worldwide trends, leading to decreased fisher access to shark meat. Because of this, most respondents (70.7%, n=46) now consider it more advantageous to sell the sharks they catch than to consume them. In addition, the local commercialization of these fish is currently based on immature coastal species (<1 m). Thus, economic and biological studies on local shark populations are suggested in order to preserve local fisher culture and ensure food security for artisanal fisher communities and a long-term sustainable fishery and conservation of exploited species.

Vertebrates as a Bactericidal Agent

In Brazil, although a large number of animals are used in traditional medicine (at least 354 species), information about their biological activities is scarce. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal potential of zootherapeutic by-products from animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine and discuss the ecological and cultural consequences of such practices. The species analyzed were: Tupinambis merianae (skin), Iguana iguana (skin and body fat), Crotalus durissus (skin and body fat), Boa constrictor (skin), Euphractus sexcinctus (body fat) and Coendou prehensilis (quills). Experiments were performed with standard clinical strains of Escherichia coli (EC-ATCC10536) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA-ATCC 25923). For the microbiological assay, the zootherapeutics were evaluated using serial microdilutions. The results indicate that none of the samples possess inhibitory activity against standard bacterial strains. The in vitro ineffectiveness of the analyzed products demonstrate a necessity for new pharmacological research that encompass a large number of species of medicinal animals as well as highlight the importance of zootherapy in the context of plans for animal conservation.

Habits and customs of crab catchers in southern Bahia, Brazil

BACKGROUND

Brazilian mangrove forests are widely distributed along the coast and exploited by groups of people with customs and habits as diverse as the biology of the mangrove ecosystems. This study identifies different methods of extracting crabs that inhabit the mangrove belts; some of these activities, such as catching individual crabs by hand, are aimed at maintaining natural stocks of this species in Mucuri (south Bahia), Brazil.

METHODS

In the studied community, illegal hunting activities that violate Brazilian legislation limiting the use of tangle-netting in mangrove ecosystem were observed.

RESULTS

According to our observations, fishermen, to catch individual crabs, use the tangle-netting technique seeking to increase income and are from families that have no tradition of extraction.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis leads us to conclude that catchers from economically marginalised social groups enter mangroves for purposes of survival rather than for purposes of subsistence, because the catching by tangle-netting is a predatory technique. Tangle-netting  technique increase caught but also increases their mortality rate. We emphasise that traditional catching methods are unique to Brazil and that manual capturing of crab should be preserved through public policies aimed at maintaining the crab population.

Functional aspects of the use of plants and animals in local medical systems and their implications for resilience

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study sought to understand the role of plants and animals in traditional medical systems and evaluate the capacity of these systems to absorb impacts and maintain their identity by determining the existence of functional substitutes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Ethnobiological data were collected through semi-structured interviews and free lists at a rural community in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. The data were subjected to the utilitarian redundancy model and analyzed by tests of proportion and variance.

RESULTS

We found that most of the therapeutic targets treated with animal-based remedies were also treatable by plant-based remedies; these targets were perceived as very usual, although they were not considered dangerous. Furthermore, people considered the plants and animals to be equally effective at curing overlapping therapeutic targets, but the plant remedies were used more frequently. The findings show that local knowledge about medicinal plants and animals follows similar patterns regarding the utilitarian redundancy, with high functional overlap among these features. However, the ease of access to the medicinal resource influences the choice of treatment, leading to an increased preference for plants over animals. In addition, we suggest that during the cultural evolution process, people concentrated their efforts on experimenting with different resources for the treatment of diseases that were very frequent locally, even if not very severe, which contributed to the resilience of the local medical system.

CONCLUSION

Furthermore, we infer that plants may effectively perform the function of healing, whereas animals act as reserves of resilience for the system, maintaining system function in the face of disturbances that may affect the availability of plant species.

Anti-inflammatory potential of zootherapeutics derived from animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine

CONTEXT

Animals are used for the treatment of diseases caused by inflammatory processes, although few studies evaluate their potential for these purposes.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the anti-inflammatory potential of zootherapeutic products derived from vertebrates used in Brazilian traditional medicine.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The species analyzed were Tupinambis merianae, Iguana iguana, Crotalus durissus, Boa constrictor, and Euphractus sexcinctus. The methods used in anti-inflammatory assays were ear edema (topical) and paw (systemic).

RESULTS

With regard to topical anti-inflammatory activity, the fat from T. merianae, C. durissus, I. iguana, B. constrictor, and E. sexcinctus reduced inflammation, while for systemic anti-inflammatory activity, only the fat and the skin of C. durissus, the skin of I. iguana and the fat from B. constrictor reduced inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies should be conducted to evaluate the mechanisms of action for each product that demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity as well as against other inflammatory processes.

Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of fixed oil extracted from the body fat of the snake Spilotes pullatus

CONTEXT

Ethnozoological studies have shown that Spilotes pullatus Linn. (Colubridae: Ophidia), is associated with medicinal and magic-religious uses in Brazil.

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to determine the chemical composition of the oil extracted from the body fat of S. pullatus and to test its antimicrobial properties, alone and in association with aminoglycosides, against fungi and bacterial strains in concentrations ranging between 1024 and 0.5 µg/mL.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The snakes were collected in the Chapada do Araripe, county of Crato, Ceará State, Brazil. The oil was extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus using hexane. The methyl esters of the fatty acids present in the samples were identified using GC-MS. The antimicrobial and drug modulatory activities of oil were tested by microdilution against fungal and bacterial strains.

RESULTS

The chemical composition of the fixed oils of S. pullatus identified 10 constituents representing 94.97% of the total sample. The percentages of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids were 33.59 and 61.38%, respectively, with the most abundant components being elaidic (37.26%). The oil did not demonstrate any antimicrobial or antifungal activity when tested alone, presenting MIC values ≥ 1024 µg/mL. However, when associated with antibiotics, it demonstrated synergistic effects with gentamicin against all the bacterial lineages assayed, and antagonistic effects with amikacin and neomycin against strains of Escherichia coli.

CONCLUSIONS

Oil extracted from the body fat of S. pullatus did not demonstrate any inhibitory effects on bacterial or fungal activities, but was effective in modulating the effects of certain antibiotics.

Wild birds as pets in Campina Grande, Paraíba State, Brazil: an ethnozoological approach

Birds are one of the animals most widely used by humans and are highly valued as pets. The present work reports the use of wild birds as pets in the city of Campina Grande, Paraíba State (PB), Brazil. The owners' choice and perceptions of the species ecology was assessed as well. The methodology employed included unstructured and semi-structured interviews, guided tours and direct observations. A total of 26 bird species distributed among ten families and four orders were identified. The most frequently encountered order was Passeriformes (76.9%), with a predominance of the family Emberizidae (34.6%). The specimens kept as pets were principally obtained in public markets or between the breeders themselves. The popularity of birds as pets, compounded by the inefficiency of official controls over the commerce of wild animals has stimulated the illegal capture and breeding of wild birds in Campina Grande.

Parallels between zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinary and human complementary medicine in northeastern Brazil

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to describe the local zootherapeutic practices in ethnoveterinay medicine of semi-arid of NE Brazil (Caatinga biome) and to contribute to future research about the validation of the effects and side effects of these animal products. In this sense, we sought to determine the connections between human and animal ethnopharmacology and their implications for ethnoveterinary medicine in northeastern Brazil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study we analyze data gathered through fieldwork conducted in the semi-arid of Paraiba State, NE Brazil, where 123 people (98 men and 25 women) provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. The information obtained through semi-structured interviews was complemented by free interviews and informal conversations.

RESULTS

A total of 46 animal species (43 vertebrates and 3 invertebrates) were found to be used to treat 33 different ailments in livestocks and pets and 62 conditions in humans. Interviewees cited a wide range of materials derived from animal bodies (or their metabolic products) that are used as remedies in local EVM, nonetheless, fats (and/or suet) is the most frequently reported natural remedies. EVM practices have close relationships with human complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) and probably evolved based on traditional human medicine practices; as such, the division between EVM and CAM is not always obvious from the viewpoint of the local residents. Descriptions of diseases, symptoms or treatments were often associated with both humans and animals (especially livestock), and 24 animal species (52%) were prescribed to treat similar ailments in both humans and animals based on local knowledge about CAM.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that traditional knowledge of animal-based medicines in ethnoveterinary practices co-evolved with traditional knowledge of human ethnomedicine. The examination of folk knowledge and animal health practices will give us a better understanding of human interactions with their local environment and aid in formulating appropriate strategies for the validation of traditional remedies and for natural resource conservation.

Animal-based remedies as complementary medicines in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil

Animals (and their derived products) are essential ingredients in the preparation of many traditional remedies. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on medicinal animals has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. This work documents the medicinal animals used by a rural community in the semi-arid region, inserted in Caatinga Biome, where 66 respondents provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. We calculated the informant consensus factor to determine the consensus over which species are effective for particular ailments, as well as the species use value to determine the extent of utilization of each species. We recorded the use of 51 animal species as medicines, whose products were recommended for the treatment of 68 illnesses. The informant consensus in the use of many specific remedies is fairly high, giving an additional validity to this folk medicine. Eight species not previously reported as having medicinal use were recorded. The local medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Given a high proportion of medicinal animals observed in the study area, it is logical to conclude that any conservation strategy should include access to modern health care.

Topical anti-inflammatory activity of body fat from the lizard Tupinambis merianae

AIM OF THE STUDY

Tupinambis merianae is one of the most frequently used animals in traditional medicine in Brazil as its body fat has many different therapeutic indications as a folk remedy. The present study evaluated the topical anti-inflammatory activity of Tupinambis merianae fat in treating ear edema in an animal model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Oil (OTM) was extracted from body fat located in the ventral region of Tupinambis merianae using hexane as a solvent. Ear edema provoked by the application of croton oil (single and multiple application), arachidonic acid, phenol and capsaicin to Swiss mice was used to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory value of the topical use of OTM. Topical applications of these irritants were made to the right ears of animals that were pre-treated with a acetone (control), dexamethasone, or OTM.

RESULTS

Our results indicate that Tupinambis merianae fat demonstrates significant topical antiinflammatory activity that reduces inflammation related to ear edema caused by croton oil (single and multiple application), arachidonic acid, phenol. While the inflammation caused by capsaicin, OTM did not significantly reduce the edema.

CONCLUSION

This represents the first evidence of anti-inflammatory activity of Tupinambis merianae fat in in vivo models, confirming its usefulness in traditional medicine as a remedy for skin diseases (dermatitis). The fatty acids present in OTM most likely inhibit the response pathway of arachidonic acid and its metabolites, thus reducing the production of pro-inflammatory mediators.

The medicinal animal markets in the metropolitan region of Natal City, northeastern Brazil

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study investigates the trade of animals for medicinal purposes in Natal metropolitan area, northeastern Brazil, to document which animal species are used, how and for what purposes. This study also discusses the implications of the use of zootherapeutics for wildlife conservation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on interviews with merchants of medicinal animals in all open fairs of the metropolitan region of Natal City, we calculated the informant consensus factor (ICF) to determine the consensus over which species are effective for particular ailments, as well as the species relative importance to determine the extent of potential utilization of each species.

RESULTS

We describe the therapeutic effects of 23 animal species used medicinally. The zootherapeutical products sold commercially are used to treat 34 health problems that were classified into 14 broad categories. We also highlight those species valued for their effectiveness against a range of ailments. The highest ICF value (1.0) was cited for diseases of the circulatory system, which include relief of symptoms such as stroke, hemorrhage, varicose veins and edema.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Our study indicated that the local population holds a great deal of ethnomedical knowledge about their local animal resources, and highlights the need for clinical investigations of these traditional remedies to test the safety and efficacy. The animal species identified in this study not only hold high medicinal value for local populations, but could potentially be a source of healing compounds that could aid pharmaceutical research. While the impact of these practices on animal populations is unknown, the high extractive value of these animal populations and the associated medicinal traditional knowledge, needs to be considered in any conservation strategy aimed at the faunistic resources of this area.

Prevalence and intensity of infection by Raillietiella gigliolii Hett, 1924 (Pentastomida) in Amphisbaena alba Linnaeus, 1758 and A. vermicularis Wagler, 1824 (Amphisbaenidae) from Northeastern Brazil

Raillietiella gigliolii is a Neotropical pentastomid parasite found in Amphisbaena alba. Collections were made in northeastern Brazil in a remnant area of Atlantic Forest (07 masculine 10' S and 35 masculine 05' W) in the municipality of Cruz do Espírito Santo, Paraíba State, and in a Humid Forest area (07 masculine 16' S and 39 masculine 26' W) on the slopes of the Chapada do Araripe Mountains, municipality of Crato, Ceará state, Brazil. Nine specimens of A. alba and 12 of A. vermicularis were collected to gather basic ecological data (prevalence and mean intensity of infection) concerning these parasites. Raillietiella gigliolii was found infecting the lungs of both species. The prevalence for A. alba was 55.5% (5/9), with a mean intensity of infection of 5.0 +/- 2.53 and amplitudes of 1-13. A. vermicularis demonstrated prevalence of 50%, with a mean intensity of infection of 5.3 +/- 2.1 and amplitudes of 1-14. This represents the first record of R. gigliolii as a parasite of A. vermicularis. Our results suggest that R. gigliolii is a generalist parasite species and that an overlapping diet is the determinant factor in the sharing of its final hosts.

Is the body fat of the lizard Tupinambis merianae effective against bacterial infections?

AIM OF THE STUDY

Tupinambis merianae is one of the animals that is most frequently used for medicinal purposes in Brazil as its body fat has many therapeutic indications in local folk medicine. This work presents the chemical compositions of the body fat of Tupinambis merianae and evaluates the antibacterial activity of the body fat as well as the ecological implications of its use in traditional medicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Oil (OTM) was extracted from body fat located in the ventral region of Tupinambis merianae using hexane as a solvent. Fatty acids were determined indirectly using their corresponding methyl esters. The antibacterial activity of OTM was tested against standard as well as multi-resistant lines of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, either alone or in combination with antibiotics and UV-A light.

RESULTS

Body fat of Tupinambis merianae presents 57% and 43% of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids respectively. Our results indicated that OTM did not demonstrate relevant antibacterial activity against any of the lines of Escherichia coli or Staphylococcus aureus, nor when combined with antibiotics or with UV-A light.

CONCLUSIONS

In light of these results, we recommend (i) development of management plans for a sustainable and rational use of Tupinambis merianae reducing the possible pressure on this species; and (ii) more studies be focused on the use of OTM and other natural products derived from animals that are used to treat other illnesses.

Medicinal animals as therapeutic alternative in a semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

A number of animal species are offered by herbalists in markets throughout Brazil. Nevertheless, there is a general lack of information about this type of trade in the country. In this review, we report on the trade of medicinal animal species in a semi-arid region in northeastern Brazil.

METHODS

We gathered information from scientific articles on animal species used for medicinal purposes in that semi-arid region.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The trade of medicinal animals comprises 59 species and the zootherapeutic products extracted from them, recommended for the treatment of 66 illnesses. Results demonstrate the existence of a multi-state trade network of medicinal animals. Some of the traded animals are listed in the Brazilian list of threatened species. This demonstrates the urgent need to consider zootherapy in the context of biodiversity conservation in Brazil. Our results reveal the importance of zootherapy as a therapeutic alternative and demonstrate the need of further studies on the subject.

Commercialization of animal-derived remedies as complementary medicine in the semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we aim to document the use of animal species in traditional medicine and healing practices in the semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil. While widespread and of great importance to large population that has limited access to contemporary medicine, such practices are poorly understood and the potential value of medicinal animal species largely unknown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on interviews with the merchants of medicinal animals, we calculated the informant consensus factor (ICF) to determine the consensus over which species are effective for particular ailments, as well as the species relative importance to determine the extent of potential utilization of each species.

RESULTS

We describe the therapeutic effects of 36 animal species used medicinally. The zootherapeutical products sold commercially are used to treat 40 health problems that were classified into 10 broad categories. We also highlight those species valued for their effectiveness against a range of ailments. The highest ICF value (0.91) was cited for diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, which include relief of symptoms such as acne and furuncles.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that many animal species play an important role in healing practices. Animals provide the raw materials for remedies prescribed clinically and are also used in the form of amulets and charms in magic-religious rituals and ceremonies. The medicinal value of animal species depends on the local knowledge that exists within user communities, and therefore, the conservation of animal species is imperative to the preservation of local medicinal knowledge and culture.

Fauna used in popular medicine in Northeast Brazil

BACKGROUND

Animal-based remedies constitute an integral part of Brazilian Traditional Medicine. Due to its long history, zootherapy has in fact become an integral part of folk medicine both in rural and urban areas of the country. In this paper we summarize current knowledge on zootherapeutic practices in Northeast of Brazil, based on information compiled from ethnobiological scientific literature.

METHODS

In order to examine the diversity of animals used in traditional medicine in Northeast of Brazil, all available references or reports of folk remedies based on animals sources were examined. 34 sources were analyzed. Only taxa that could be identified to species level were included in assessment of medicinal animal species. Scientific names provided in publications were updated.

RESULTS

The review revealed that at least 250 animal species (178 vertebrates and 72 invertebrates) are used for medicinal purposes in Northeast of Brazil. The inventoried species comprise 10 taxonomic categories and belong to 141 Families. The groups with the greatest number of species were fishes (n = 58), mammals (n = 47) and reptiles (n = 37). The zootherapeutical products are used for the treatment of different illnesses. The most widely treated condition were asthma, rheumatism and sore throat, conditions, which had a wide variety of animals to treat them with. Many animals were used for the treatment of multiple ailments. Beyond the use for treating human diseases, zootherapeutical resources are also used in ethnoveterinary medicine

CONCLUSION

The number of medicinal species catalogued was quite expressive and demonstrate the importance of zootherapy as alternative therapeutic in Northeast of Brazil. Although widely diffused throughout Brazil, zootherapeutic practices remain virtually unstudied. There is an urgent need to examine the ecological, cultural, social, and public health implications associated with fauna usage, including a full inventory of the animal species used for medicinal purposes and the socio-cultural context associated with their consumption.

Zootherapy goes to town: the use of animal-based remedies in urban areas of NE and N Brazil

This paper examines the therapeutic possibilities offered by animal-based remedies in five Brazilian cities. Information was obtained through semi-structured questionnaires applied to 79 traders of medicinal animals at São Luís, Teresina, João Pessoa and Campina Grande (Northeastern) and Belém (Northern) Brazil. We recorded the use of 97 animal species as medicines, whose products were recommended for the treatment of 82 illnesses. The most frequently quoted treatments concerned the respiratory system (58 species; 407 use-citations), the osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue (46 species; 384 use-citations), and the circulatory system (34 species; 124 use-citations). Mammals (27 species), followed by reptiles (24) and fishes (16) represented the bulk of medicinal species. In relation to users, 53% of the interviewees informed that zootherapeuticals resources were sought after by people from all social classes, while 47% stated that low income people were the main buyers. The notable use and commercialization of medicinal animals to alleviate and cure health problems and ailments in cities highlights the resilience of that resource in the folk medicine. Most remedies quoted by interviewees depend on wild-caught animals, including some species under official protection. Among other aspects, the harvesting of threatened species confers zootherapy a role in the discussions about biodiversity conservation in Brazil.

Zootherapeutic practices among fishing communities in North and Northeast Brazil: a comparison

This paper compares the medicinal uses of animals in fishing communities located in the North and Northeastern regions of Brazil. Data were obtained through field surveys conducted in the Northern state of Pará and in the NE states of Paraíba, Piauí and Maranhão. We interviewed 137 people (67 men and 70 women), who provided information on animal species used as remedies, body parts used to prepare the remedies, and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. Comparisons were made using cluster analysis. Interviewees quoted 138 animal taxa, 11 of which are listed in the Brazilian list of threatened species. Animals were used to treat 100 illnesses. Results suggest that similarities in the repertoire of medicinal resources chosen by the surveyed communities reflects both a geographic/cultural continuum and the local accessibility/availability of the resources.

From cnidarians to mammals: the use of animals as remedies in fishing communities in NE Brazil

This work documents zootherapeutic practices in Northeast Brazil. It is primarily based on field surveys carried out in fishing villages located in the states of Maranhão and Paraíba, where 60 respondents (38 men and 22 women) provided information on animal species used as medicine, body parts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. A total of 100 animal species (72 families), distributed in 12 taxonomic categories, was used as medicine. Zootherapeutic resources were used to treat 62 different diseases. The local medicinal fauna is largely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Threatened species, such as the seahorse (Hippocampus reidi, Ginsburg, 1933) (Syngnathidae) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae) represented important medicinal resources for the studied communities. This shows the need to integrate traditional knowledge into strategies to conserve and manage faunistic resources in Brazil.