1
|
Rocha G, Ramírez-Cárdenas J, Padilla-Pérez MC, Walpole S, Nepravishta R, García-Moreno MI, Sánchez-Fernández EM, Ortiz Mellet C, Angulo J, Muñoz-García JC. Speeding-up the Determination of Protein-Ligand Affinities by STD NMR: The Reduced Data Set STD NMR Approach (rd-STD NMR). Anal Chem 2024; 96:615-619. [PMID: 38165272 PMCID: PMC10853903 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
STD NMR spectroscopy is a powerful ligand-observed NMR tool for screening and characterizing the interactions of small molecules and low molecular weight fragments with a given macromolecule, identifying the main intermolecular contacts in the bound state. It is also a powerful analytical technique for the accurate determination of protein-ligand dissociation constants (KD) of medium-to-weak affinity, of interest in the pharmaceutical industry. However, accurate KD determination and epitope mapping requires a long series of experiments at increasing saturation times to carry out a full analysis using the so-called STD NMR build-up curve approach and apply the "initial slopes approximation". Here, we have developed a new protocol to bypass this important limitation, which allows us to obtain initial slopes by using just two saturation times and, hence, to very quickly determine precise protein-ligand dissociation constants by STD NMR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Rocha
- Institute
for Chemical Research (IIQ), CSIC—University
of Seville, 49 Américo Vespucio St, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - Jonathan Ramírez-Cárdenas
- Institute
for Chemical Research (IIQ), CSIC—University
of Seville, 49 Américo Vespucio St, 41092 Seville, Spain
| | - M. Carmen Padilla-Pérez
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Seville, 1 Prof. García González St, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School
of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, NR4 7TJ Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Ridvan Nepravishta
- School
of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, NR4 7TJ Norwich, United Kingdom
- Cancer
Research Horizons, The Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road,
Bearsden, Glasgow G61 1BD, United Kingdom
| | - M. Isabel García-Moreno
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Seville, 1 Prof. García González St, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Elena M. Sánchez-Fernández
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Seville, 1 Prof. García González St, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Carmen Ortiz Mellet
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Seville, 1 Prof. García González St, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Jesús Angulo
- Institute
for Chemical Research (IIQ), CSIC—University
of Seville, 49 Américo Vespucio St, 41092 Seville, Spain
- School
of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, NR4 7TJ Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Juan C. Muñoz-García
- Institute
for Chemical Research (IIQ), CSIC—University
of Seville, 49 Américo Vespucio St, 41092 Seville, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Huettner I, Krumm SA, Serna S, Brzezicka K, Monaco S, Walpole S, van Diepen A, Allan F, Hicks T, Kimuda S, Emery AM, Landais E, Hokke CH, Angulo J, Reichardt N, Doores KJ. Cross-reactivity of glycan-reactive HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies with parasite glycans. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110611. [PMID: 35354052 PMCID: PMC10073069 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The HIV-1 Envelope glycoprotein (Env) is the sole target for broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs). Env is heavily glycosylated with host-derived N-glycans, and many bnAbs bind to, or are dependent upon, Env glycans for neutralization. Although glycan-binding bnAbs are frequently detected in HIV-infected individuals, attempts to elicit them have been unsuccessful because of the poor immunogenicity of Env N-glycans. Here, we report cross-reactivity of glycan-binding bnAbs with self- and non-self N-glycans and glycoprotein antigens from different life-stages of Schistosoma mansoni. Using the IAVI Protocol C HIV infection cohort, we examine the relationship between S. mansoni seropositivity and development of bnAbs targeting glycan-dependent epitopes. We show that the unmutated common ancestor of the N332/V3-specific bnAb lineage PCDN76, isolated from an HIV-infected donor with S. mansoni seropositivity, binds to S. mansoni cercariae while lacking reactivity to gp120. Overall, these results present a strategy for elicitation of glycan-reactive bnAbs which could be exploited in HIV-1 vaccine development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Huettner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Stefanie A Krumm
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sonia Serna
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón 182, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Katarzyna Brzezicka
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón 182, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Serena Monaco
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Angela van Diepen
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Fiona Allan
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, UK
| | - Thomas Hicks
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Simon Kimuda
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Aidan M Emery
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, UK
| | | | - Elise Landais
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative Neutralizing Antibody Center, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, New York, NY 10004, USA
| | - Cornelis H Hokke
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK; Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (CSIC-US), Avda. Américo Vespucio, 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Niels Reichardt
- Glycotechnology Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón 182, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain; CIBER-BBN, Paseo Miramón 182, 20009 San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wu H, Crost EH, Owen CD, van Bakel W, Martínez Gascueña A, Latousakis D, Hicks T, Walpole S, Urbanowicz PA, Ndeh D, Monaco S, Sánchez Salom L, Griffiths R, Reynolds RS, Colvile A, Spencer DIR, Walsh M, Angulo J, Juge N. The human gut symbiont Ruminococcus gnavus shows specificity to blood group A antigen during mucin glycan foraging: Implication for niche colonisation in the gastrointestinal tract. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001498. [PMID: 34936658 PMCID: PMC8730463 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The human gut symbiont Ruminococcus gnavus displays strain-specific repertoires of glycoside hydrolases (GHs) contributing to its spatial location in the gut. Sequence similarity network analysis identified strain-specific differences in blood-group endo-β-1,4-galactosidase belonging to the GH98 family. We determined the substrate and linkage specificities of GH98 from R. gnavus ATCC 29149, RgGH98, against a range of defined oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates including mucin. We showed by HPAEC-PAD and LC-FD-MS/MS that RgGH98 is specific for blood group A tetrasaccharide type II (BgA II). Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR confirmed RgGH98 affinity for blood group A over blood group B and H antigens. The molecular basis of RgGH98 strict specificity was further investigated using a combination of glycan microarrays, site-directed mutagenesis, and X-ray crystallography. The crystal structures of RgGH98 in complex with BgA trisaccharide (BgAtri) and of RgGH98 E411A with BgA II revealed a dedicated hydrogen network of residues, which were shown by site-directed mutagenesis to be critical to the recognition of the BgA epitope. We demonstrated experimentally that RgGH98 is part of an operon of 10 genes that is overexpresssed in vitro when R. gnavus ATCC 29149 is grown on mucin as sole carbon source as shown by RNAseq analysis and RT-qPCR confirmed RgGH98 expression on BgA II growth. Using MALDI-ToF MS, we showed that RgGH98 releases BgAtri from mucin and that pretreatment of mucin with RgGH98 confered R. gnavus E1 the ability to grow, by enabling the E1 strain to metabolise BgAtri and access the underlying mucin glycan chain. These data further support that the GH repertoire of R. gnavus strains enable them to colonise different nutritional niches in the human gut and has potential applications in diagnostic and therapeutics against infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyang Wu
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | | | - C David Owen
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Didcot, United Kingdom
- Research Complex at Harwell, Didcot, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Thomas Hicks
- University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Didier Ndeh
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | - Anna Colvile
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Didcot, United Kingdom
- Research Complex at Harwell, Didcot, United Kingdom
| | | | - Martin Walsh
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Didcot, United Kingdom
- Research Complex at Harwell, Didcot, United Kingdom
| | - Jesus Angulo
- University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
- Universidad de Sevilla and Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Nathalie Juge
- Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Monaco S, Walpole S, Doukani H, Nepravishta R, Martínez‐Bailén M, Carmona AT, Ramos‐Soriano J, Bergström M, Robina I, Angulo J. Exploring Multi-Subsite Binding Pockets in Proteins: DEEP-STD NMR Fingerprinting and Molecular Dynamics Unveil a Cryptic Subsite at the GM1 Binding Pocket of Cholera Toxin B. Chemistry 2020; 26:10024-10034. [PMID: 32449563 PMCID: PMC7496166 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202001723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ligand-based NMR techniques to study protein-ligand interactions are potent tools in drug design. Saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR spectroscopy stands out as one of the most versatile techniques, allowing screening of fragments libraries and providing structural information on binding modes. Recently, it has been shown that a multi-frequency STD NMR approach, differential epitope mapping (DEEP)-STD NMR, can provide additional information on the orientation of small ligands within the binding pocket. Here, the approach is extended to a so-called DEEP-STD NMR fingerprinting technique to explore the binding subsites of cholera toxin subunit B (CTB). To that aim, the synthesis of a set of new ligands is presented, which have been subject to a thorough study of their interactions with CTB by weak affinity chromatography (WAC) and NMR spectroscopy. Remarkably, the combination of DEEP-STD NMR fingerprinting and Hamiltonian replica exchange molecular dynamics has proved to be an excellent approach to explore the geometry, flexibility, and ligand occupancy of multi-subsite binding pockets. In the particular case of CTB, it allowed the existence of a hitherto unknown binding subsite adjacent to the GM1 binding pocket to be revealed, paving the way to the design of novel leads for inhibition of this relevant toxin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Serena Monaco
- School of PharmacyUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNR4 7TJNorwichUK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of PharmacyUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNR4 7TJNorwichUK
| | - Hassan Doukani
- School of PharmacyUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNR4 7TJNorwichUK
| | - Ridvan Nepravishta
- School of PharmacyUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNR4 7TJNorwichUK
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular BiologySealy Center for Structural Biology & Molecular BiophysicsUniversity of Texas Medical Branch301 University BlvdGalvestonTX77555-1068USA
| | | | - Ana T. Carmona
- Department of Organic ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryUniversity of Seville41012SevilleSpain
| | - Javier Ramos‐Soriano
- Department of Organic ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryUniversity of Seville41012SevilleSpain
| | - Maria Bergström
- Department of Chemistry and Biomedical SciencesLinnaeus University391 82KalmarSweden
| | - Inmaculada Robina
- Department of Organic ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryUniversity of Seville41012SevilleSpain
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of PharmacyUniversity of East AngliaNorwich Research ParkNR4 7TJNorwichUK
- Department of Organic ChemistryFaculty of ChemistryUniversity of Seville41012SevilleSpain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (CSIC-US)Avda. Américo Vespucio, 4941092SevillaSpain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wu H, Rebello O, Crost EH, Owen CD, Walpole S, Bennati-Granier C, Ndeh D, Monaco S, Hicks T, Colvile A, Urbanowicz PA, Walsh MA, Angulo J, Spencer DIR, Juge N. Fucosidases from the human gut symbiont Ruminococcus gnavus. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 78:675-693. [PMID: 32333083 PMCID: PMC7872956 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03514-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The availability and repartition of fucosylated glycans within the gastrointestinal tract contributes to the adaptation of gut bacteria species to ecological niches. To access this source of nutrients, gut bacteria encode α-l-fucosidases (fucosidases) which catalyze the hydrolysis of terminal α-l-fucosidic linkages. We determined the substrate and linkage specificities of fucosidases from the human gut symbiont Ruminococcus gnavus. Sequence similarity network identified strain-specific fucosidases in R. gnavus ATCC 29149 and E1 strains that were further validated enzymatically against a range of defined oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates. Using a combination of glycan microarrays, mass spectrometry, isothermal titration calorimetry, crystallographic and saturation transfer difference NMR approaches, we identified a fucosidase with the capacity to recognize sialic acid-terminated fucosylated glycans (sialyl Lewis X/A epitopes) and hydrolyze α1–3/4 fucosyl linkages in these substrates without the need to remove sialic acid. Molecular dynamics simulation and docking showed that 3′-Sialyl Lewis X (sLeX) could be accommodated within the binding site of the enzyme. This specificity may contribute to the adaptation of R. gnavus strains to the infant and adult gut and has potential applications in diagnostic glycomic assays for diabetes and certain cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyang Wu
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Programme, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - Osmond Rebello
- Ludger Ltd, Culham Science Centre, Abingdon, OX14 3EB, UK
| | - Emmanuelle H Crost
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Programme, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - C David Owen
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Diamond House, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK.,Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Chloe Bennati-Granier
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Programme, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - Didier Ndeh
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Programme, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK
| | - Serena Monaco
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Thomas Hicks
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Anna Colvile
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Diamond House, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK.,Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK.,The John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - Martin A Walsh
- Diamond Light Source Ltd, Diamond House, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0DE, UK.,Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.,Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Sevilla, C/ Prof. García González, 1, 41012, Sevilla, Spain.,Instituto de Investigaciones Químicas (CSIC-US), Avda. Américo Vespucio, 49, 41092, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - Nathalie Juge
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Programme, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UQ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bidula SM, Cromer BA, Walpole S, Angulo J, Stokes L. Mapping a novel positive allosteric modulator binding site in the central vestibule region of human P2X7. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3231. [PMID: 30824738 PMCID: PMC6397193 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39771-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
P2X7 receptors are important in the regulation of inflammatory responses and immune responses to intracellular pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Toxoplasma gondii. Enhancement of P2X7 receptor responses may be useful in pathogen clearance particularly in individuals with defective microbial killing mechanisms. Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng have been discovered to act as positive allosteric modulators of P2X7. Here we describe a novel modulator binding site identified by computational docking located in the central vestibule of P2X7 involving S60, D318, and L320 in the lower body β-sheets lining the lateral portals. Potentiation of ATP-mediated responses by ginsenosides CK and Rd caused enhanced ionic currents, Ca2+ influx and YOPRO-1 uptake in stably transfected HEK-293 cells (HEK-hP2X7) plus enhanced cell death responses. Potentiation of ATP responses by CK and Rd was markedly reduced by mutations S59A, S60A, D318L and L320A supporting the proposed allosteric modulator binding site. Furthermore, mutation of the conserved residues S60 and D318 led to alterations in P2X7 response and a higher sensitivity to ATP in the absence of modulators suggesting residues in the connecting rods play an important role in regulating P2X7 gating. Identification of this novel binding site location in the central vestibule may also be relevant for structurally similar channels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan M Bidula
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Brett A Cromer
- School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.,Department of Chemistry & Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Leanne Stokes
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Nepravishta R, Walpole S, Tailford L, Juge N, Angulo J. Deriving Ligand Orientation in Weak Protein-Ligand Complexes by DEEP-STD NMR Spectroscopy in the Absence of Protein Chemical-Shift Assignment. Chembiochem 2018; 20:340-344. [PMID: 30379391 PMCID: PMC6468252 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Differential epitope mapping saturation transfer difference (DEEP‐STD) NMR spectroscopy is a recently developed powerful approach for elucidating the structure and pharmacophore of weak protein–ligand interactions, as it reports key information on the orientation of the ligand and the architecture of the binding pocket.1 The method relies on selective saturation of protein residues in the binding site and the generation of a differential epitope map by observing the ligand, which depicts the nature of the protein residues making contact with the ligand in the bound state. Selective saturation requires knowledge of the chemical‐shift assignment of the protein residues, which can be obtained either experimentally by NMR spectroscopy or predicted from 3D structures. Herein, we propose a simple experimental procedure to expand the DEEP‐STD NMR methodology to protein–ligand cases in which the spectral assignment of the protein is not available. This is achieved by experimentally identifying the chemical shifts of the residues present in binding hot‐spots on the surface of the receptor protein by using 2D NMR experiments combined with a paramagnetic probe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ridvan Nepravishta
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Louise Tailford
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Program, Quadram Institute of Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7UA, UK
| | - Nathalie Juge
- The Gut Microbes and Health Institute Strategic Program, Quadram Institute of Bioscience, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7UA, UK
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Dhuna K, Felgate M, Bidula SM, Walpole S, Bibic L, Cromer BA, Angulo J, Sanderson J, Stebbing MJ, Stokes L. Ginsenosides Act As Positive Modulators of P2X4 Receptors. Mol Pharmacol 2018; 95:210-221. [PMID: 30545933 PMCID: PMC6334005 DOI: 10.1124/mol.118.113696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the selectivity of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides from Panax ginseng acting as positive allosteric modulators on P2X receptors. ATP-induced responses were measured in stable cell lines overexpressing human P2X4 using a YOPRO-1 dye uptake assay, intracellular calcium measurements, and whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. Ginsenosides CK and Rd were demonstrated to enhance ATP responses at P2X4 by ∼twofold, similar to potentiation by the known positive modulator ivermectin. Investigations into the role of P2X4 in mediating a cytotoxic effect showed that only P2X7 expression in HEK-293 cells induces cell death in response to high concentrations of ATP, and that ginsenosides can enhance this process. Generation of a P2X7-deficient clone of BV-2 microglial cells using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing enabled an investigation of endogenous P2X4 in a microglial cell line. Compared with parental BV-2 cells, P2X7-deficient BV-2 cells showed minor potentiation of ATP responses by ginsenosides, and insensitivity to ATP− or ATP+ ginsenoside-induced cell death, indicating a primary role for P2X7 receptors in both of these effects. Computational docking to a homology model of human P2X4, based on the open state of zfP2X4, yielded evidence of a putative ginsenoside binding site in P2X4 in the central vestibule region of the large ectodomain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kshitija Dhuna
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Matthew Felgate
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Stefan M Bidula
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Lucka Bibic
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Brett A Cromer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Julie Sanderson
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Martin J Stebbing
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| | - Leanne Stokes
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia (K.D., B.A.C., M.J.S., L.S.); School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (M.F., S.M.B., S.W., L.B., J.A., J.S., L.S.); Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia (B.A.C.); and Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (M.J.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Watt JE, Hughes GR, Walpole S, Monaco S, Stephenson GR, Bulman Page PC, Hemmings AM, Angulo J, Chantry A. Discovery of Small Molecule WWP2 Ubiquitin Ligase Inhibitors. Chemistry 2018; 24:17677-17680. [PMID: 30207403 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201804169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
We have screened small molecule libraries specifically for inhibitors that target WWP2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase associated with tumour outgrowth and spread. Selected hits demonstrated dose-dependent WWP2 inhibition, low micromolar IC50 values, and inhibition of PTEN substrate-specific ubiquitination. Binding to WWP2 was confirmed by ligand-based NMR spectroscopy. Furthermore, we used a combination of STD NMR, the recently developed DEEP-STD NMR approach, and docking calculations, to propose for the first time an NMR-validated 3D molecular model of a WWP2-inhibitor complex. These first generation WWP2 inhibitors provide a molecular framework for informing organic synthetic approaches to improve activity and selectivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Watt
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Gregory R Hughes
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Serena Monaco
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | | | | | - Andrew M Hemmings
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.,School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Andrew Chantry
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Park JB, Kim YH, Yoo Y, Kim J, Jun SH, Cho JW, El Qaidi S, Walpole S, Monaco S, García-García AA, Wu M, Hays MP, Hurtado-Guerrero R, Angulo J, Hardwidge PR, Shin JS, Cho HS. Structural basis for arginine glycosylation of host substrates by bacterial effector proteins. Nat Commun 2018; 9:4283. [PMID: 30327479 PMCID: PMC6191443 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06680-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The bacterial effector proteins SseK and NleB glycosylate host proteins on arginine residues, leading to reduced NF-κB-dependent responses to infection. Salmonella SseK1 and SseK2 are E. coli NleB1 orthologs that behave as NleB1-like GTs, although they differ in protein substrate specificity. Here we report that these enzymes are retaining glycosyltransferases composed of a helix-loop-helix (HLH) domain, a lid domain, and a catalytic domain. A conserved HEN motif (His-Glu-Asn) in the active site is important for enzyme catalysis and bacterial virulence. We observe differences between SseK1 and SseK2 in interactions with substrates and identify substrate residues that are critical for enzyme recognition. Long Molecular Dynamics simulations suggest that the HLH domain determines substrate specificity and the lid-domain regulates the opening of the active site. Overall, our data suggest a front-face SNi mechanism, explain differences in activities among these effectors, and have implications for future drug development against enteric pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Bae Park
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Hun Kim
- Department of Microbiology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngki Yoo
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Juyeon Kim
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hoon Jun
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.,Center for Electron Microscopy Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Ochang, Chungbuk, 28119, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Won Cho
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Samir El Qaidi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Serena Monaco
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Ana A García-García
- BIFI, University of Zaragoza, BIFI-IQFR (CSIC) Joint Unit, Mariano Esquillor s/n, Campus Rio Ebro, Edificio I+D, Zaragoza, 50018, Spain
| | - Miaomiao Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Michael P Hays
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Ramon Hurtado-Guerrero
- BIFI, University of Zaragoza, BIFI-IQFR (CSIC) Joint Unit, Mariano Esquillor s/n, Campus Rio Ebro, Edificio I+D, Zaragoza, 50018, Spain. .,Fundación ARAID, 50018, Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK.
| | - Philip R Hardwidge
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Jeon-Soo Shin
- Department of Microbiology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea. .,Severance Biomedical Science Institute and Institute for Immunology and Immunological Diseases, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyun-Soo Cho
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
STD NMR is a powerful ligand-based tool for screening small molecules and low molecular weight fragments for their interaction with a given macromolecule. Such information is invaluable both in the drug discovery sector and in understanding fundamental biological interactions. Recently, powerful methods have been developed to extract a greater wealth of information from the STD NMR experiment, including ligand binding epitopes, dissociation constant determination, and mapping of binding site properties. Herein we describe these STD NMR experiments, giving practical examples for each approach, and highlight the important parameters and common pitfalls that must be considered for a successful experiment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Serena Monaco
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Ridvan Nepravishta
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kuhaudomlarp S, Walpole S, Stevenson CEM, Nepogodiev SA, Lawson DM, Angulo J, Field RA. Unravelling the Specificity of Laminaribiose Phosphorylase from Paenibacillus sp. YM-1 towards Donor Substrates Glucose/Mannose 1-Phosphate by Using X-ray Crystallography and Saturation Transfer Difference NMR Spectroscopy. Chembiochem 2018; 20:181-192. [PMID: 29856496 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Glycoside phosphorylases (GPs) carry out a reversible phosphorolysis of carbohydrates into oligosaccharide acceptors and the corresponding sugar 1-phosphates. The reversibility of the reaction enables the use of GPs as biocatalysts for carbohydrate synthesis. Glycosyl hydrolase family 94 (GH94), which only comprises GPs, is one of the most studied GP families that have been used as biocatalysts for carbohydrate synthesis, in academic research and in industrial production. Understanding the mechanism of GH94 enzymes is a crucial step towards enzyme engineering to improve and expand the applications of these enzymes in synthesis. In this work with a GH94 laminaribiose phosphorylase from Paenibacillus sp. YM-1 (PsLBP), we have demonstrated an enzymatic synthesis of disaccharide 1 (β-d-mannopyranosyl-(1→3)-d-glucopyranose) by using a natural acceptor glucose and noncognate donor substrate α-mannose 1-phosphate (Man1P). To investigate how the enzyme recognises different sugar 1-phosphates, the X-ray crystal structures of PsLBP in complex with Glc1P and Man1P have been solved, providing the first molecular detail of the recognition of a noncognate donor substrate by GPs, which revealed the importance of hydrogen bonding between the active site residues and hydroxy groups at C2, C4, and C6 of sugar 1-phosphates. Furthermore, we used saturation transfer difference NMR spectroscopy to support crystallographic studies on the sugar 1-phosphates, as well as to provide further insights into the PsLBP recognition of the acceptors and disaccharide products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakonwan Kuhaudomlarp
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Samuel Walpole
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Clare E M Stevenson
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Sergey A Nepogodiev
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - David M Lawson
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jesus Angulo
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Robert A Field
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Elliott P, Walpole S, Morelli L, Lambert P, Lunsmann W, Westphal C, Lavu S. Resveratrol/SRT-501. DRUG FUTURE 2009. [DOI: 10.1358/dof.2009.34.4.1360696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
|
14
|
|
15
|
Wangensteen OH, Varco RL, Hay L, Walpole S, Trach B. GASTRIC ACIDITY BEFORE AND AFTER OPERATIVE PROCEDURE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ROLE OF THE PYLORUS AND ANTRUM: A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF A CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY. Ann Surg 2007; 112:626-70. [PMID: 17857670 PMCID: PMC1388022 DOI: 10.1097/00000658-194010000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
16
|
Garrick M, Scott D, Walpole S, Finkelstein E, Whitbred J, Chopra S, Trivikram L, Mayes D, Rhodes D, Cabbagestalk K, Oklu R, Sadiq A, Mascia B, Hoke J, Garrick L. Iron supplementation moderates but does not cure the Belgrade anemia. Biometals 1997; 10:65-76. [PMID: 9210290 DOI: 10.1023/a:1018370804882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Belgrade rats inherit microcytic, hypochromic anemia as an autosomal recessive trait (gene symbol b). Erythrocytes and tissue are iron deficient in the face of elevated TIBC (total iron binding capacity) and percent iron saturation; iron injections increased the number of erythrocytes but their appearance remained abnormal. We have investigated iron supplements to improve husbandry of b/b rats and to learn more about the underlying defect and its tissue distribution. Weekly i.m. (intramuscular) injections of iron-dextran (Imferon at 30 mg kg-1) improved the anemia but did not alter the red cell morphology. Certain diets also improved the health of b/b rats when compared to standard rat chows by the criteria of weight, survival to adulthood, hematology and reproduction. The critical nutritional factor turned out to be iron bioavailability, with ferrous iron added to the diet improving the health of Belgrade rats without affecting the underlying erythroid defect. Tissue iron measurements after dietary or parenteral supplementation confirmed the iron deficient status of untreated b/b rats and established that dietary ferrous iron partially relieved this deficiency, with injections leading to greater amounts of tissue iron. Serum iron and TIBC were also found to be elevated in untreated b/b rats, with dietary supplementation decreasing but not eliminating the elevation in TIBC. These studies indicate that iron supplements can improve the health of b/b rats without altering the underlying defect and also suggest that the mutation could alter iron uptake in the GI (gastrointestinal) tract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Garrick
- Department of Biochemistry, SUNY, Buffalo 14214-3000, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|