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Albuja AF, Muñoz M, Kinzler K, Woodward A, Gaither SE. Hypodescent or ingroup overexclusion?: Children's and adults' racial categorization of ambiguous black/white biracial faces. Dev Sci 2024; 27:e13450. [PMID: 37723991 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Two processes describe racially ambiguous Black/White Biracial categorization-the one-drop rule, or hypodescent, whereby racially ambiguous people are categorized as members of their socially subordinated racial group (i.e., Black/White Biracial faces categorized as Black) and the ingroup overexclusion effect, whereby racially ambiguous people are categorized as members of a salient outgroup, regardless of the group's status. Without developmental research with racially diverse samples, it is unclear when these categorization patterns emerge. Study 1 included White, Black, and racially diverse Biracial children (aged 3- to 7-years) and their parents to test how racial group membership and social context influence face categorization biases. To provide the clearest test of hypodescent and ingroup overexclusion, White participants came from majority White neighborhoods and Black participants from majority Black neighborhoods (with Biracial participants from more racially diverse neighborhoods)-two samples with prominent racial ingroups. Study 2 aimed to replicate the parent findings with a separate sample of White, Black, Black/White Biracial, and Asian adults. Results suggest the ingroup overexclusion effect is present across populations early in development and persists into adulthood. Additionally, categorization was meaningfully related to parental context, pinpointing a pathway that potentially contributes to ingroup overexclusion. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: White, Black, and racially diverse Biracial children and adults tended to categorize racially ambiguous Black/White Biracial faces as racial outgroup members, even if the outgroup was White. This contradicts most work arguing Black/White Biracial racially ambiguous people are more often seen as Black. Children and parents' categorizations were related, though children's categorizations were not related to socialization above and beyond parents' categorizations. Children showed similar categorization patterns across dichotomous and continuous measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analia F Albuja
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, USA
| | - Mercedes Muñoz
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA
| | | | - Amanda Woodward
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, USA
| | - Sarah E Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA
- The Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Duke University, Durham, USA
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2
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Straka BC, Albuja A, Leer J, Brauher K, Gaither SE. The rich get richer? Children's reasoning about socioeconomic status predicts inclusion and resource bias. Dev Psychol 2024; 60:505-521. [PMID: 38095998 DOI: 10.1037/dev0001655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Children's socioeconomic status (SES) is linked to disparate access to resources and affects social behaviors such as inclusion and resource allocations. Yet it is unclear whether children's essentialized view of SES (i.e., believing SES is immutable) or subjective social status (SSS) influences behavioral biases toward high- versus low-SES peers. We measured 4- to 9-year-old children's SES essentialism and SSS to test whether these predict inclusion and resource allocations to high- versus low-SES peers (N = 127; from a midsize city in the Southeastern United States; 49.6% female; parent-reported 54.2% White, 2.8% Black, 8.3% Latine, 5.6% Asian, 1.4% another race, 27.8% multiracial, 43.3% not provided). We also compared children's SES beliefs to their parent's. Children's SES essentialism and SSS decreased across the ages tested, and children reported higher SSS than their parents. Parents' SES essentialism predicted younger (but not older) children's SES essentialism. Moreover, SES essentialism mediated the negative relationship between age and preference for including high-SES peers, while SSS mediated the negative relationship between age and preference for allocating more resources to high-SES peers. This suggests that beliefs about the nature of SES may influence sociorelational behavior like including or excluding others, while perceived social status (SSS) may influence resource allocations. Furthermore, older children and those with lower SES essentialism included low- versus high-SES peers more often while older and lower SSS children distributed more resources toward low- versus high-SES peers. Thus, children's SES essentialism and SSS may also influence their behaviors to either perpetuate or rectify inequality. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda C Straka
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
| | | | - Jane Leer
- School of Education and Human Development, Boston College
| | - Kaelah Brauher
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
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3
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Hantzmon SV, Davenport CA, Das Gupta MN, Adekunle TA, Gaither SE, Olsen MK, Pinheiro SO, Johnson KS, Mahoney H, Falls A, Lloyd L, Pollak KI. Race differences in patient trust and distrust from audio-recorded cardiology encounters. Patient Educ Couns 2024; 119:108083. [PMID: 37989068 PMCID: PMC10842896 DOI: 10.1016/j.pec.2023.108083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Many have reported racial disparities in self-reported trust in clinicians but have not directly assessed expressions of trust and distrust in physician-patient encounters. We created a codebook to examine racial differences in patient trust and distrust through audio-recorded cardiologist-patient interactions. METHODS We analyzed data from a randomized controlled trial of audio-recorded outpatient cardiology encounters (50 White and 51 Black patients). We created a codebook for trust and distrust that was applied to recordings between White cardiologists and White and Black patients. We assessed differences in trust, distrust, and guardedness while adjusting for patient age, sex, and first appointment with the cardiologist. RESULTS Compared to White patients, Black patients had significantly lower expressions of trust ([IRR] [95 % CI]: 0.59 [0.41, 0.84]) and a significantly lower mean guarded/open score ([β] [95 % CI] -0.38 [-0.71, -0.04]). There was no statistically significant association between race and odds of at least one distrustful expression (OR [95 % CI] 1.36 [0.37, 4.94]). CONCLUSION AND PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS We found that coders can reliably identify patient expressions of trust and distrust rather than relying on problematic self-reported measures. Results suggest that White clinicians can improve their communication with Black patients to increase expressions of trust.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah V Hantzmon
- Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Maya N Das Gupta
- Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Temi A Adekunle
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sarah E Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA; Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Maren K Olsen
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Durham Center of Innovation to Accelerate Discovery and Practice Transformation, Durham Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sandro O Pinheiro
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kimberly S Johnson
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA; Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center (GRECC), Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Hannah Mahoney
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Allison Falls
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Lauren Lloyd
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kathryn I Pollak
- Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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Adekunle TA, Knowles JM, Hantzmon SV, DasGupta MN, Pollak KI, Gaither SE. A qualitative analysis of trust and distrust within patient-clinician interactions. PEC Innov 2023; 3:100187. [PMID: 37457672 PMCID: PMC10339236 DOI: 10.1016/j.pecinn.2023.100187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Objectives Trust represents a key quality of strong clinician-patient relationships.1 Many have attempted to assess patient-reported trust. However, most trust measures suffer from ceiling effects, with no variability, making it not possible to examine predictors of trust and distrust. Rather than rely on patient reports, we created a codebook for instances of trust and distrust from actual patient-clinician encounters. Methods Three coders conducted a qualitative analysis of audio recordings among patient-cardiologist outpatient encounters. Results We identified trust and distrust based on vocal and verbal cues in the interactions. We found consistent patterns that indicated patient trust and distrust. Conclusion Overall, this work empirically validates a new more accurate measurement of trust for patient-doctor interactions. Innovation We are the first to use audio recordings to identify verbal markers of trust and distrust in patient-clinician interactions. From this work, others can code trust and distrust in recorded encounters rather than rely on self-report measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temi A. Adekunle
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Joy M. Knowles
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sarah V. Hantzmon
- Cancer Prevention and Control, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Maya N. DasGupta
- Cancer Prevention and Control, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kathryn I. Pollak
- Cancer Prevention and Control, Duke Cancer Institute, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Durham, NC, USA
- Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Halim MLD, Atwood S, Osornio AC, Pauker K, Dunham Y, Olson KR, Gaither SE. Parent and self-socialization of gender intergroup attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors among ethnically and geographically diverse young children. Dev Psychol 2023; 59:1933-1950. [PMID: 37768624 DOI: 10.1037/dev0001586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Previous work has shown the robust nature of gender bias in both children and adults. However, much less attention has been paid toward understanding what factors shape these biases. The current preregistered study used parent surveys and child interviews to test whether parents' conversations with their children about and modeling of gender intergroup relations and/or children's self-guided interests about gender (self-socialization) contribute to the formation of gender attitudes, status perceptions, and gender intergroup behaviors among young 4- to 6-year-old children. Our participant sample also allowed us to explore variation by child gender, ethnicity (Asian-, Black-, Latiné-, and White-American), and U.S. geographical region (Northeast, Pacific Northwest, West, Southeast, and Hawaii). Data suggest that children whose parents reported they were especially active in seeking information about gender tended to allocate more resources to same-gender versus other-gender children and expressed less positive evaluations of other-gender children in comparison to children who were less active. By contrast, we found that parents' conversations with their children about gender intergroup relations and about gender-play stereotypes showed few connections with children's gender attitudes. In terms of demographic differences, boys raised in households with more unequal versus equal division of labor perceived that men had higher status than women, but few differences by ethnicity or geographic region emerged. In sum, our study suggests that both self- and parent socialization processes are at play in shaping early gender attitudes, status perceptions, and gender intergroup behavior, although self-socialization seemed to play a larger role. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- May Ling D Halim
- Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach
| | - S Atwood
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
| | - Alisha C Osornio
- Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach
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6
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Chen JM, Meyers C, Pauker K, Gaither SE, Hamilton DL, Sherman JW. Intergroup Context Moderates the Impact of White Americans' Identification on Racial Categorization of Ambiguous Faces. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2023:1461672231190264. [PMID: 37559509 DOI: 10.1177/01461672231190264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
We examined how the number of groups in a categorization task influences how White Americans categorize ambiguous faces. We investigated the strength of identity-driven ingroup overexclusion-wherein highly identified perceivers overexclude ambiguous members from the ingroup-proposing that, compared with dichotomous tasks (with only the ingroup and one outgroup), tasks with more outgroups attenuate identity-driven ingroup overexclusion (a dilution effect). Fourteen studies (n = 4,001) measured White Americans' racial identification and their categorizations of ambiguous faces and manipulated the categorization task to have two groups, three groups, or an unspecified number of groups (open-ended). In all three conditions, participants overexcluded faces from the White category on average. There was limited support for the dilution effect: identity-driven ingroup overexclusion was absent in the three-group task and only weakly supported in the open-ended task. The presence of multiple outgroups may dampen the impact of racial identity on race perceptions among White Americans.
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7
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Walker DC, Gaither SE, De Los Santos B, Keigan J, Schaefer LM, Thompson JK. Development and validation of a measure of curvy ideals internalization. Body Image 2022; 43:217-231. [PMID: 36191379 PMCID: PMC9750804 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Several sociocultural female body ideals exist - thin, muscular/athletic, and, more recently, curvier ideals, which research specifically suggests are more prevalent among Black women. Two validated measures assess women's desire for curvier bodies, but neither assess certain facets of curvy ideals (e.g., thick vs. slim-thick) separately. We developed and validated the Curvy Ideals Internalization (CII) Scale, to be used alone or alongside existing measures of appearance ideal internalization. Focus groups among racially/ethnically diverse women informed initial items. A sample of 897 White (37.1%), Black (34.2%), and biracial Black and White (28.7%) U.S. women completed the initial 37-item CII to determine factor structure, narrow the item pool, and examine validity and reliability. A separate sample (N = 366) of U.S. Black, White, and biracial women completed the CII to confirm the factor structure. The final CII has eleven items, with factors assessing thick/curvy ideal internalization and facets of slim-thick ideal internalization: thin waist and large breast size. The CII has adequate internal consistency, test-retest reliability, construct validity, and factorial validity. The CII is appropriate for use among Black, White, and biracial women to assess internalization of curvier body ideals and needs to be validated in more diverse samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Catherine Walker
- Union College, Psychology Department, 807 Union St., Schenectady, NY 12308, USA
| | - Sarah E Gaither
- Duke University, Psychology Department, 417 Chapel Drive, 324 Reuben-Cooke Building, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - Jessica Keigan
- Union College, Psychology Department, 807 Union St., Schenectady, NY 12308, USA
| | - Lauren M Schaefer
- Sanford Center for Bio-behavioral Research, 120 8th St S, Fargo, ND 58103, USA; University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 1919 Elm St N, Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - J Kevin Thompson
- Department of Psychology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620, USA
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8
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Meyers C, Gaither SE, Remedios J, Pauker K. Detecting biracial identity strength: Perceived phenotypicality is inaccurate. Self and Identity 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2022.2146742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chanel Meyers
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Sarah E. Gaither
- Duke University, Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Center on Health and Society, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Kristin Pauker
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaiʹi at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
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9
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Suh Y, Perlin JD, Turner AF, West AL, Gaither SE. The Good Life in Cultural Context: Examining Asian Young Adults’ Psychological Well-Being and Narratives of Negative Experiences. Journal of Research in Personality 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Ruba AL, McMurty R, Gaither SE, Wilbourn MP. How White American Children Develop Racial Biases in Emotion Reasoning. Affect Sci 2022; 3:21-33. [PMID: 36046098 PMCID: PMC9383007 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-022-00111-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
For decades, affective scientists have examined how adults and children reason about others' emotions. Yet, our knowledge is limited regarding how emotion reasoning is impacted by race-that is, how individuals reason about emotions displayed by people of other racial groups. In this review, we examine the developmental origins of racial biases in emotion reasoning, focusing on how White Americans reason about emotions displayed by Black faces/people. We highlight how racial biases in emotion reasoning, which emerge as early as infancy, likely contribute to miscommunications, inaccurate social perceptions, and negative interracial interactions across the lifespan. We conclude by discussing promising interventions to reduce these biases as well as future research directions, highlighting how affective scientists can decenter Whiteness in their research designs. Together, this review highlights how emotion reasoning is a potentially affective component of racial bias among White Americans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L. Ruba
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Waisman Center 399, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI 53705 USA
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11
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Gaither SE, Chen CM, Neal S, Chien SHL. Children's cross-cultural categorizations of racially ambiguous faces in Taiwan and the U.S. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 2022:2022-22967-001. [PMID: 35099208 DOI: 10.1037/cdp0000513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Racially ambiguous face categorization research is growing in prominence, and yet the majority of this work has focused on White and Western samples and has primarily used biracial Black/White stimuli. Past findings suggest that biracial Black/White faces are more often seen as Black than White, but without testing these perceptions with other groups, generalizability cannot be guaranteed. METHODS We tested 3-7-year-old Asian children living in Taiwan-an Eastern cultural context (N = 74)-and Asian children living in the U.S.-a Western cultural context (N = 65) to explore the role that cultural group membership may play in biracial perceptions. Children categorized 12 racially ambiguous biracial Black/White faces and 12 biracial Asian/White faces in a dichotomous forced-choice task and completed a racial constancy measurement. RESULTS Regarding biracial Black/White faces, Taiwanese and Asian American children both categorized the faces as White significantly more often compared to chance levels, regardless of racial constancy beliefs. For biracial Asian/White faces, Taiwanese children with racial constancy beliefs categorized the faces significantly more often as White, whereas Taiwanese children without racial constancy beliefs categorized the faces significantly more often as Asian. However, Asian American children did not show a bias in categorizing biracial Asian/White faces. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that hyperdescent over hypodescent for more commonly studied biracial Black/White faces generalizes in both cultural contexts. However, biracial Asian/White stimuli may be perceived in more fixed-like patterns in predominately Asian contexts, since only Taiwanese children showed increased outgroup categorizations once racial constancy beliefs were endorsed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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12
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Straka BC, Stanaland A, Tomasello M, Gaither SE. Who can be in a group? 3- to 5-year-old children construe realistic social groups through mutual intentionality. Cognitive Development 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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13
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Rosenfeld DL, Balcetis E, Bastian B, Berkman ET, Bosson JK, Brannon TN, Burrow AL, Cameron CD, Chen S, Cook JE, Crandall C, Davidai S, Dhont K, Eastwick PW, Gaither SE, Gangestad SW, Gilovich T, Gray K, Haines EL, Haselton MG, Haslam N, Hodson G, Hogg MA, Hornsey MJ, Huo YJ, Joel S, Kachanoff FJ, Kraft-Todd G, Leary MR, Ledgerwood A, Lee RT, Loughnan S, MacInnis CC, Mann T, Murray DR, Parkinson C, Pérez EO, Pyszczynski T, Ratner K, Rothgerber H, Rounds JD, Schaller M, Silver RC, Spellman BA, Strohminger N, Swim JK, Thoemmes F, Urganci B, Vandello JA, Volz S, Zayas V, Tomiyama AJ. Psychological Science in the Wake of COVID-19: Social, Methodological, and Metascientific Considerations. Perspect Psychol Sci 2021; 17:311-333. [PMID: 34597198 DOI: 10.1177/1745691621999374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has extensively changed the state of psychological science from what research questions psychologists can ask to which methodologies psychologists can use to investigate them. In this article, we offer a perspective on how to optimize new research in the pandemic's wake. Because this pandemic is inherently a social phenomenon-an event that hinges on human-to-human contact-we focus on socially relevant subfields of psychology. We highlight specific psychological phenomena that have likely shifted as a result of the pandemic and discuss theoretical, methodological, and practical considerations of conducting research on these phenomena. After this discussion, we evaluate metascientific issues that have been amplified by the pandemic. We aim to demonstrate how theoretically grounded views on the COVID-19 pandemic can help make psychological science stronger-not weaker-in its wake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Brock Bastian
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne
| | - Elliot T Berkman
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon.,Center for Translational Neuroscience, University of Oregon
| | | | | | | | - C Daryl Cameron
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University.,Rock Ethics Institute, The Pennsylvania State University
| | - Serena Chen
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kurt Gray
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | | | - Martie G Haselton
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles.,Department of Communication, University of California, Los Angeles.,Institute for Society and Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Nick Haslam
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne
| | | | | | | | - Yuen J Huo
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles
| | | | - Frank J Kachanoff
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | | | - Mark R Leary
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University
| | | | - Randy T Lee
- Department of Psychology, Cornell University
| | - Steve Loughnan
- School of Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences, The University of Edinburgh
| | | | - Traci Mann
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota
| | | | | | - Efrén O Pérez
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles.,Department of Political Science, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Tom Pyszczynski
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
| | | | | | | | - Mark Schaller
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia
| | - Roxane Cohen Silver
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine.,Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine
| | | | - Nina Strohminger
- Department of Legal Studies and Business Ethics, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania.,Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Janet K Swim
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University
| | - Felix Thoemmes
- Department of Human Development, Cornell University.,Department of Psychology, Cornell University
| | | | | | - Sarah Volz
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota
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Herrmann SD, Varnum MEW, Straka BC, Gaither SE. Social Class Identity Integration and Success for First-Generation College Students: Antecedents, Mechanisms, and Generalizability. Self and Identity 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2021.1924251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah D. Herrmann
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Weber State University, Ogden, United States
| | | | - Brenda C. Straka
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, United States
| | - Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Faculty Affiliate at the Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity and the Center on Health and Society, Duke University, Durham, United States
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15
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Albuja AF, Sanchez DT, Gaither SE. Intra-race intersectionality: Identity denial among dual-minority biracial people. Translational Issues in Psychological Science 2020. [DOI: 10.1037/tps0000264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
Twenty years ago, Multiracial Americans completed the U.S Census with the option to indicate more than one race for the first time. As we embark on the second anniversary of this shift in Multiracial recognition, this article reviews the research related to known sources and systems that perpetuate Multiracial-specific stigma. Policy recommendations address the needs and the continued acknowledgment of this growing racial/ethnic minority population.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Zoey Eddy
- University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
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17
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Young DM, Sanchez DT, Pauker K, Gaither SE. A Meta-Analytic Review of Hypodescent Patterns in Categorizing Multiracial and Racially Ambiguous Targets. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2020; 47:705-727. [PMID: 32791890 DOI: 10.1177/0146167220941321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Research addressing the increasing multiracial population (i.e., identifying with two or more races) is rapidly expanding. This meta-analysis (k = 55) examines categorization patterns consistent with hypodescent, or the tendency to categorize multiracial targets as their lower status racial group. Subgroup analyses suggest that operationalization of multiracial (e.g., presenting photos of racially ambiguous faces, or ancestry information sans picture), target gender, and categorization measurement (e.g., selecting from binary choices: Black or White; or multiple categorization options: Black, White, or multiracial) moderated categorization patterns. Operationalizing multiracial as ancestry, male targets, and measuring categorization with binary or multiple Likert-type scale outcomes supported hypodescent. However, categorizing multiracial targets as not their lower status racial group occurred for female targets or multiple categorization options. Evidence was mixed on whether perceiver and target race were related to categorization patterns. These results point to future directions for understanding categorization processes and multiracial perception.
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Gaither SE, Perlin JD, Doan SN. Race, Gender, and the Development of Cross-Race Egalitarianism. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1525. [PMID: 32754090 PMCID: PMC7381306 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the course of development, children acquire adult-like thinking about social categories such as race, which in turn informs their perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. However, children's developing perceptions of race have been understudied particularly with respect to their potential influence on cross-race egalitarianism. Specifically, the acquisition of racial constancy, defined as the perception that race is a concrete and stable category, has been associated with increased awareness of racial stereotypes and group status differences. Yet, little work has investigated behavioral outcomes stemming from the acquisition of racial constancy beliefs. Here, we investigate whether the presence or absence of racial constancy beliefs differentially predicts inequality aversion with racial ingroup versus outgroup members for young children. White children (N = 202; ages 3-8) completed three sticker resource-allocation games with either a White or a Black partner shown in a photograph, after which racial constancy was measured. Results revealed that the acquisition of racial constancy interacted with partner race to predict inequality aversion outcomes in one game; however, age and gender also exerted strong effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
- Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Center on Health and Society, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Joshua D. Perlin
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Stacey N. Doan
- Department of Psychological Science, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA, United States
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Meyers C, Aumer K, Schoniwitz A, Janicki C, Pauker K, Chang EC, Gaither SE, Williams A. Experiences with microaggressions and discrimination in racially diverse and homogeneously white contexts. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 2020; 26:250-259. [PMID: 31233310 DOI: 10.1037/cdp0000293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The interaction between one's context and identity may be essential in understanding people's racial experiences. In this study, we examined 2 contexts (racially diverse vs. homogenously White) and measured the experiences of discrimination and microaggressions for monoracial people of color (POC), multiracial individuals, and White individuals. Additionally, we measured experience of microaggressions with a new scale that measured instances of multiracial-specific microaggressions, and the offensiveness of these microaggressions. METHOD AND RESULTS Through a self-reported survey, monoracial POC, multiracial individuals, and White individuals across the United States reported their experiences with discrimination and microaggressions, and offensiveness of multiracial-specific microaggressions. Overall, monoracial POC and multiracial individuals reported experiencing less discrimination and microaggressions in diverse contexts versus homogenous contexts. White individuals reported the lowest amounts of discrimination and microaggressions, which did not differ across contexts. CONCLUSIONS Living in a racially diverse context may have positive benefits for racial minorities, and White individuals do not necessarily experience greater instances of discrimination or microaggressions in diverse contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Gaither SE, Chen JM, Rule N. Perceptions and experiences of (people with) unconventional identities. Self and Identity 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2020.1711802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Center on Health and Society, Duke University, Durham, USA
| | | | - Nicholas Rule
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Straka BC, Gaither SE, Acheson SK, Swartzwelder HS. “Mixed” Drinking Motivations: A Comparison of Majority, Multiracial, and Minority College Students. Social Psychological and Personality Science 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550619883294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Social exclusion is associated with substance use, but the specific link between majority and minority racial group membership and substance use is unknown. We examined how social exclusion among racial majority (White), Multiracial, and racial minority (Native American, Latino, Asian, and Black) college students relates to self-reported alcohol use and motivations. Using the AlcoholEdu for College™ survey, Study 1a reports five factors related to motives for initiating or inhibiting alcohol use. Study 1b analyzes majority, Multiracial, and minority college students’ comparative endorsement of these motivations. Study 2 compares these factors with established belonging scales using a separate undergraduate sample. White, Multiracial, Native American, and Latino students displayed the highest proportion of problematic alcohol use. White students endorsed belonging-based drinking motivations, while Multiracial and Asian students endorsed motivations similar to both majority and minority groups. Native American, Latino, and Black students endorsed abstaining motivations more than other groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda C. Straka
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Center on Health and Society, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Shawn K. Acheson
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - H. S. Swartzwelder
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
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22
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Gaither SE, Fan SP, Kinzler KD. Thinking about multiple identities boosts children's flexible thinking. Dev Sci 2019; 23:e0012871. [PMID: 31145824 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Studies of children's developing social identification often focus on individual forms of identity. Yet, everyone has multiple potential identities. Here we investigated whether making children aware of their multifaceted identities-effectively seeing themselves from multiple angles-would promote their flexible thinking. In Experiment 1, 6- to 7-year-old children (N = 48) were assigned to either a Multiple-Identities condition where they were led to consider their multiple identities (e.g. friend, neighbor) or to a Physical-Traits condition where they considered their multiple physical attributes (e.g. legs, arms). Children in the Multiple-Identity condition subsequently expressed greater flexibility at problem-solving and categorization than children in the Physical-Traits condition. Experiment 2 (N = 72) replicated these findings with a new sample of 6- to 7-year-old children and demonstrated that a Multiple-Identity mindset must be self-relevant. Children who were led to think about another child's multiple identities did not express as much subsequent creative thinking as did children who thought about their own multiple identities. Experiment 3 (N = 76) showed that a Mmultiple-Identity framework may be particularly effective when the identities are presented via generic language suggesting that they are enduring traits (in this case, identities depicted as noun phrases rather than verbal phrases). These findings illustrate that something as simple as thinking about one's identity from multiple angles could serve as a tool to help reduce rigid thinking, which might increase open-mindedness in a society that is becoming increasingly diverse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Faculty Affiliate at the Samuel DuBois Cook Center on Social Equity, Center on Health and Society, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Samantha P Fan
- Division of the Social Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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Gaither SE, Chen JM, Pauker K, Sommers SR. At face value: Psychological outcomes differ for real vs. computer-generated multiracial faces. J Soc Psychol 2018; 159:592-610. [PMID: 30376420 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2018.1538929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Multiracial research emphasizes hypodescent categorizations and relies on computer-generated stimuli. Four experiments showed that real biracial faces in a 2-Choice categorization task (White, Black) elicited hypodescent more than computer-generated faces. Additionally, Experiment 2 showed a 2-Choice categorization task with real biracial faces increased racial essentialism more than a 3-Choice categorization task. Experiment 3 showed that mere exposure to real biracial faces did not increase essentialism. Finally, Experiments 4a and 4b replicated hypodescent outcomes when comparing real biracial faces to computer-generated versions of those same faces. In sum, these findings initiate a discussion surrounding the methodology of multiracial categorizations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacqueline M Chen
- Psychology Department, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , USA.,Psychology Department, University of California, Irvine , Honolulu , USA
| | - Kristin Pauker
- Psychology Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa , Honolulu , USA
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Chen JM, Pauker K, Gaither SE, Hamilton DL, Sherman JW. Black + White = Not White: A minority bias in categorizations of Black-White multiracials. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Albuja AF, Sanchez DT, Gaither SE. Identity Denied: Comparing American or White Identity Denial and Psychological Health Outcomes Among Bicultural and Biracial People. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2018; 45:416-430. [PMID: 30084303 DOI: 10.1177/0146167218788553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Because bicultural and biracial people have two identities within one social domain (culture or race), their identification is often challenged by others. Although it is established that identity denial is associated with poor psychological health, the processes through which this occurs are less understood. Across two high-powered studies, we tested identity autonomy, the perceived compatibility of identities, and social belonging as mediators of the relationship between identity denial and well-being among bicultural and biracial individuals. Bicultural and biracial participants who experienced challenges to their American or White identities felt less freedom in choosing an identity and perceived their identities as less compatible, which was ultimately associated with greater reports of depressive symptoms and stress. Study 2 replicated these results and measured social belonging, which also accounted for significant variance in well-being. The results suggest the processes were similar across populations, highlighting important implications for the generalizability to other dual-identity populations.
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Albuja AF, Sanchez DT, Gaither SE. Fluid racial presentation: Perceptions of contextual “passing” among biracial people. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Abstract
Across six studies, we demonstrate that exposure to biracial individuals significantly reduces endorsement of colorblindness as a racial ideology among White individuals. Real-world exposure to biracial individuals predicts lower levels of colorblindness compared with White and Black exposure (Study 1). Brief manipulated exposure to images of biracial faces reduces colorblindness compared with exposure to White faces, Black faces, a set of diverse monoracial faces, or abstract images (Studies 2-5). In addition, these effects occur only when a biracial label is paired with the face rather than resulting from the novelty of the mixed-race faces themselves (Study 4). Finally, we show that the shift in White participants' colorblindness attitudes is driven by social tuning, based on participants' expectations that biracial individuals are lower in colorblindness than monoracial individuals (Studies 5-6). These studies suggest that the multiracial population's increasing size and visibility has the potential to positively shift racial attitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Negin R Toosi
- 2 Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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29
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Pauker K, Meyers C, Sanchez DT, Gaither SE, Young DM. A review of multiracial malleability: Identity, categorization, and shifting racial attitudes. Soc Personal Psychol Compass 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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31
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva E. Chen
- The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
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Gomez EM, Young DM, Preston AG, Wilton LS, Gaither SE, Kaiser CR. Loss and loyalty: Change in political and gender identity among Clinton supporters after the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Self and Identity 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2017.1391873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric M. Gomez
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Leigh S. Wilton
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, NY, USA
| | - Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Cheryl R. Kaiser
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Gaither SE, Apfelbaum EP, Birnbaum HJ, Babbitt LG, Sommers SR. Mere Membership in Racially Diverse Groups Reduces Conformity. Social Psychological and Personality Science 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550617708013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Three studies assessed the impact of White individuals’ mere membership in racially diverse or homogeneous groups on conformity. In Study 1, White participants were randomly assigned to four-person groups that were racially diverse or homogeneous in which three confederates routinely endorsed clearly inferior college applicants for admission. Participants in diverse groups were significantly less likely to conform than those in homogeneous groups. Study 2 replicated these results using an online conformity paradigm, thereby isolating the effects of racial group composition from concomitant social cues in face-to-face settings. Study 3 presented a third condition—a diverse group that included one other White member. Individuals conformed less in both types of diverse groups as compared with the homogeneous group. Evidence suggests this was because Whites in homogeneous (vs. diverse) settings were more likely to reconsider their original decision after learning how other group members responded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Evan P. Apfelbaum
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sloan School of Management, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Hannah J. Birnbaum
- Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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Abstract
Abstract. Research shows that I-sharing, or sharing subjective experiences with an outgroup member, positively shapes attitudes toward that outgroup member. We investigated whether this type of social experience would also promote a positive interracial interaction with a novel outgroup member. Results showed that White and Black participants who I-shared with a racial outgroup member (vs. I-sharing with a racial ingroup member) expressed more liking toward that outgroup member. However, I-sharing with an outgroup member did not reduce anxious behavior in a future social interaction with a novel racial outgroup member. Therefore, although sharing subjective experiences may increase liking toward one individual from a racial outgroup, it remains to be seen whether this positive experience can influence behaviors in future interactions with other racial outgroup members. Future directions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology, Center for the Study of Race, Politics, and Culture, University of Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | | | - Keith B. Maddox
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
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Schultz JR, Gaither SE, Urry HL, Maddox KB. Reframing anxiety to encourage interracial interactions. Translational Issues in Psychological Science 2015. [DOI: 10.1037/tps0000048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Gaither SE, Cohen-Goldberg AM, Gidney CL, Maddox KB, Gidney CL, Gidney CL. Sounding Black or White: priming identity and biracial speech. Front Psychol 2015; 6:457. [PMID: 25941505 PMCID: PMC4403599 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has shown that priming one’s racial identity can alter a biracial individuals’ social behavior, but can such priming also influence their speech? Language is often used as a marker of one’s social group membership and studies have shown that social context can affect the style of language that a person chooses to use, but this work has yet to be extended to the biracial population. Audio clips were extracted from a previous study involving biracial Black/White participants who had either their Black or White racial identity primed. Condition-blind coders rated Black-primed biracial participants as sounding significantly more Black and White-primed biracial participants as sounding significantly more White, both when listening to whole (Study 1a) and thin-sliced (Study 1b) clips. Further linguistic analyses (Studies 2a–c) were inconclusive regarding the features that differed between the two groups. Future directions regarding the need to investigate the intersections between social identity priming and language behavior with a biracial lens are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Gaither
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA ; Center for the Study of Race, Politics, and Culture, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | | | - Calvin L Gidney
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, Medford, MA USA
| | - Keith B Maddox
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, Medford, MA USA
| | - Calvin L Gidney
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, Medford, MA USA
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Abstract
Multiracial individuals report that the social pressure of having to “choose” one of their racial groups is a primary source of psychological conflict. Yet because of their ability to maneuver among their multiple identities, multiracials also adopt flexible cognitive strategies in dealing with their social environments—demonstrating a benefit to having multiple racial identities. The current article reviews recent research involving multiracial participants to examine the behavioral and cognitive outcomes linked to being multiracial and pinpoints possible moderators that may affect these outcomes. Limitations in applying monoracial identity frameworks to multiracial populations are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Gaither
- Department of Psychology and Center for the Study of Race, Politics, and Culture, University of Chicago
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Gaither SE, Remedios JD, Schultz JR, Sommers SR. Priming White identity elicits stereotype boost for biracial Black-White individuals. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430215570504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Psychological threat experienced by students of negatively stereotyped groups impairs test performance. However, stereotype boost can also occur if a positively stereotyped identity is made salient. Biracial individuals, whose racial identities may be associated with both negative and positive testing abilities, have not been examined in this context. Sixty-four biracial Black-White individuals wrote about either their Black or White identity or a neutral topic and completed a verbal Graduate Record Examination (GRE) examination described as diagnostic of their abilities. White-primed participants performed significantly better than both Black-primed and control participants. Thus, biracial Black-White individuals experience stereotype boost only when their White identity is made salient.
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Abstract
Rigid thinking is associated with less creativity, suggesting that priming a flexible mind-set should boost creative thought. In three studies, we investigate whether priming multiple social identities predicts more creativity in domains unrelated to social identity. Study 1 asked monoracial and multiracial participants to write about their racial identities before assessing creativity. Priming a multiracial’s racial identity led to greater creativity compared to a no-prime control. Priming a monoracial’s racial identity did not affect creativity. Study 2 showed that reminding monoracials that they, too, have multiple identities increased creativity. Study 3 replicated this effect and demonstrated that priming a multiracial identity for monoracials did not affect creativity. These results are the first to investigate the association between flexible identities and flexible thinking, highlighting the potential for identity versatility to predict cognitive differences between individuals who have singular versus multifaceted views of their social selves.
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Abstract
This study used archival data to examine how White, Black, and biracial Black/White people respond to implicit attitude feedback suggesting that they harbor racial bias that does not align with their self-reported attitudes. The results suggested that people are generally defensive in response to feedback indicating that their implicit attitudes differ from their explicit attitudes. Among monoracial White and Black individuals, this effect was particularly strong when they learned that they were implicitly more pro-White than they indicated explicitly. By contrast, biracial Black/White individuals were defensive about large discrepancies in either direction (more pro-Black or more pro-White implicit attitudes). These results pinpoint one distinct difference between monoracial and biracial populations and pave the way for future research to further explore how monoracial majority, minority, and biracial populations compare in other types of attitudes and responses to personal feedback.
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Gaither SE, Chen EE, Corriveau KH, Harris PL, Ambady N, Sommers SR. Monoracial and biracial children: effects of racial identity saliency on social learning and social preferences. Child Dev 2014; 85:2299-316. [PMID: 25040708 PMCID: PMC4236271 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Children prefer learning from, and affiliating with, their racial in-group but those preferences may vary for biracial children. Monoracial (White, Black, Asian) and biracial (Black/White, Asian/White) children (N = 246, 3-8 years) had their racial identity primed. In a learning preferences task, participants determined the function of a novel object after watching adults (White, Black, and Asian) demonstrate its uses. In the social preferences task, participants saw pairs of children (White, Black, and Asian) and chose with whom they most wanted to socially affiliate. Biracial children showed flexibility in racial identification during learning and social tasks. However, minority-primed biracial children were not more likely than monoracial minorities to socially affiliate with primed racial in-group members, indicating their in-group preferences are contextually based.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eva E. Chen
- The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
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Gaither SE, Schultz JR, Pauker K, Sommers SR, Maddox KB, Ambady N. Essentialist thinking predicts decrements in children's memory for racially ambiguous faces. Dev Psychol 2014; 50:482-8. [PMID: 23815702 PMCID: PMC3844032 DOI: 10.1037/a0033493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Past research shows that adults often display poor memory for racially ambiguous and racial outgroup faces, with both face types remembered worse than own-race faces. In the present study, the authors examined whether children also show this pattern of results. They also examined whether emerging essentialist thinking about race predicts children's memory for faces. Seventy-four White children (ages 4-9 years) completed a face-memory task comprising White, Black, and racially ambiguous Black-White faces. Essentialist thinking about race was also assessed (i.e., thinking of race as immutable and biologically based). White children who used essentialist thinking showed the same bias as White adults: They remembered White faces significantly better than they remembered ambiguous and Black faces. However, children who did not use essentialist thinking remembered both White and racially ambiguous faces significantly better than they remembered Black faces. This finding suggests a specific shift in racial thinking wherein the boundaries between racial groups become more discrete, highlighting the importance of how race is conceptualized in judgments of racially ambiguous individuals.
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Abstract
Multiracial individuals often do not easily fit into existing racial categories. Perceivers may adopt a novel racial category to categorize multiracial targets, but their willingness to do so may depend on their motivations. We investigated whether perceivers' levels of internal motivation to control prejudice (IMS) and external motivation to control prejudice (EMS) predicted their likelihood of categorizing Black-White multiracial faces as Multiracial. Across four studies, IMS positively predicted perceivers' categorizations of multiracial faces as Multiracial. The association between IMS and Multiracial categorizations was strongest when faces were most racially ambiguous. Explicit prejudice, implicit prejudice, and interracial contact were ruled out as explanations for the relationship between IMS and Multiracial categorizations. EMS may be negatively associated with the use of the Multiracial category. Therefore, perceivers' motivations to control prejudice have important implications for racial categorization processes.
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Gaither SE, Sommers SR, Ambady N. When the half affects the whole: Priming identity for biracial individuals in social interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Gaither SE, Sommers SR. Living with an other-race roommate shapes Whites' behavior in subsequent diverse settings. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2012.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
We know that early experience plays a crucial role in the development of face processing, but we know little about how infants learn to distinguish faces from different races, especially for non-Caucasian populations. Moreover, it is unknown whether differential processing of different race faces observed in typically studied monoracial infants extends to biracial infants as well. Thus, we investigated 3-month-old Caucasian, Asian and biracial (Caucasian-Asian) infants' ability to distinguish Caucasian and Asian faces. Infants completed two within-subject, infant-controlled habituation sequences and test trials as an eye tracker recorded looking times and scanning patterns. Examination of individual differences revealed significant positive correlations between own-race novelty preference and scanning frequency between eye and mouth regions of own-race habituation stimuli for Caucasian and Asian infants, suggesting that facility in own-race face discrimination stems from active inspection of internal facial features in these groups. Biracial infants, however, showed the opposite effect: An 'own-race' novelty preference was associated with reduced scanning between eye and mouth regions of 'own-race' habituation stimuli, suggesting that biracial infants use a distinct approach to processing frequently encountered faces. Future directions for investigating face processing development in biracial populations are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Gaither
- Department of Psychology, Tufts University, 490 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
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