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Wucherpfennig JI, Howes TR, Au JN, Au EH, Roberts Kingman GA, Brady SD, Herbert AL, Reimchen TE, Bell MA, Lowe CB, Dalziel AC, Kingsley DM. Evolution of stickleback spines through independent cis-regulatory changes at HOXDB. Nat Ecol Evol 2022; 6:1537-1552. [PMID: 36050398 PMCID: PMC9525239 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-022-01855-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms leading to new traits or additional features in organisms is a fundamental goal of evolutionary biology. We show that HOXDB regulatory changes have been used repeatedly in different fish genera to alter the length and number of the prominent dorsal spines used to classify stickleback species. In Gasterosteus aculeatus (typically 'three-spine sticklebacks'), a variant HOXDB allele is genetically linked to shortening an existing spine and adding an additional spine. In Apeltes quadracus (typically 'four-spine sticklebacks'), a variant HOXDB allele is associated with lengthening a spine and adding an additional spine in natural populations. The variant alleles alter the same non-coding enhancer region in the HOXDB locus but do so by diverse mechanisms, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms, deletions and transposable element insertions. The independent regulatory changes are linked to anterior expansion or contraction of HOXDB expression. We propose that associated changes in spine lengths and numbers are partial identity transformations in a repeating skeletal series that forms major defensive structures in fish. Our findings support the long-standing hypothesis that natural Hox gene variation underlies key patterning changes in wild populations and illustrate how different mutational mechanisms affecting the same region may produce opposite gene expression changes with similar phenotypic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia I Wucherpfennig
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Timothy R Howes
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jessica N Au
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eric H Au
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Shannon D Brady
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Amy L Herbert
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Thomas E Reimchen
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael A Bell
- University of California Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Craig B Lowe
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Anne C Dalziel
- Department of Biology, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - David M Kingsley
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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2
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Roberts Kingman GA, Vyas DN, Jones FC, Brady SD, Chen HI, Reid K, Milhaven M, Bertino TS, Aguirre WE, Heins DC, von Hippel FA, Park PJ, Kirch M, Absher DM, Myers RM, Di Palma F, Bell MA, Kingsley DM, Veeramah KR. Predicting future from past: The genomic basis of recurrent and rapid stickleback evolution. Sci Adv 2021; 7:7/25/eabg5285. [PMID: 34144992 PMCID: PMC8213234 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg5285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Similar forms often evolve repeatedly in nature, raising long-standing questions about the underlying mechanisms. Here, we use repeated evolution in stickleback to identify a large set of genomic loci that change recurrently during colonization of freshwater habitats by marine fish. The same loci used repeatedly in extant populations also show rapid allele frequency changes when new freshwater populations are experimentally established from marine ancestors. Marked genotypic and phenotypic changes arise within 5 years, facilitated by standing genetic variation and linkage between adaptive regions. Both the speed and location of changes can be predicted using empirical observations of recurrence in natural populations or fundamental genomic features like allelic age, recombination rates, density of divergent loci, and overlap with mapped traits. A composite model trained on these stickleback features can also predict the location of key evolutionary loci in Darwin's finches, suggesting that similar features are important for evolution across diverse taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett A Roberts Kingman
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5329, USA
| | - Deven N Vyas
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA
| | - Felicity C Jones
- Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society, Max-Planck-Ring, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Shannon D Brady
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5329, USA
| | - Heidi I Chen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5329, USA
| | - Kerry Reid
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA
| | - Mark Milhaven
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA
| | - Thomas S Bertino
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA
| | - Windsor E Aguirre
- Department of Biological Sciences, DePaul University, Chicago, IL 60614-3207, USA
| | - David C Heins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Frank A von Hippel
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel & Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
| | - Peter J Park
- Department of Biology, Farmingdale State College, Farmingdale, NY 11735-1021, USA
| | - Melanie Kirch
- Friedrich Miescher Laboratory of the Max Planck Society, Max-Planck-Ring, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Devin M Absher
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, 601 Genome Way, Huntsville, AL 35806, USA
| | - Richard M Myers
- HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, 601 Genome Way, Huntsville, AL 35806, USA
| | - Federica Di Palma
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, 7 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Michael A Bell
- University of California Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - David M Kingsley
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5329, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Krishna R Veeramah
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA.
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3
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Schluter D, Marchinko KB, Arnegard ME, Zhang H, Brady SD, Jones FC, Bell MA, Kingsley DM. Fitness maps to a large-effect locus in introduced stickleback populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e1914889118. [PMID: 33414274 PMCID: PMC7826376 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1914889118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of small effect underlie most adaptation to new environments, but beneficial variants with large fitness effects are expected to contribute under certain conditions. Genes and genomic regions having large effects on phenotypic differences between populations are known from numerous taxa, but fitness effect sizes have rarely been estimated. We mapped fitness over a generation in an F2 intercross between a marine and a lake stickleback population introduced to a freshwater pond. A quantitative trait locus map of the number of surviving offspring per F2 female detected a single, large-effect locus near Ectodysplasin (Eda), a gene having an ancient freshwater allele causing reduced bony armor and other changes. F2 females homozygous for the freshwater allele had twice the number of surviving offspring as homozygotes for the marine allele, producing a large selection coefficient, s = 0.50 ± 0.09 SE. Correspondingly, the frequency of the freshwater allele increased from 0.50 in F2 mothers to 0.58 in surviving offspring. We compare these results to allele frequency changes at the Eda gene in an Alaskan lake population colonized by marine stickleback in the 1980s. The frequency of the freshwater Eda allele rose steadily over multiple generations and reached 95% within 20 y, yielding a similar estimate of selection, s = 0.49 ± 0.05, but a different degree of dominance. These findings are consistent with other studies suggesting strong selection on this gene (and/or linked genes) in fresh water. Selection on ancient genetic variants carried by colonizing ancestors is likely to increase the prevalence of large-effect fitness variants in adaptive evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolph Schluter
- Biodiversity Research Centre, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4;
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Kerry B Marchinko
- Biodiversity Research Centre, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Matthew E Arnegard
- Biodiversity Research Centre, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Haili Zhang
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Shannon D Brady
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Felicity C Jones
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Michael A Bell
- University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - David M Kingsley
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305;
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
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Lowe CB, Sanchez-Luege N, Howes TR, Brady SD, Daugherty RR, Jones FC, Bell MA, Kingsley DM. Corrigendum: Detecting differential copy number variation between groups of samples. Genome Res 2018; 28:766.1. [DOI: 10.1101/gr.237370.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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O'Brown NM, Summers BR, Jones FC, Brady SD, Kingsley DM. A recurrent regulatory change underlying altered expression and Wnt response of the stickleback armor plates gene EDA. eLife 2015; 4:e05290. [PMID: 25629660 PMCID: PMC4384742 DOI: 10.7554/elife.05290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Armor plate changes in sticklebacks are a classic example of repeated adaptive
evolution. Previous studies identified ectodysplasin (EDA) gene as
the major locus controlling recurrent plate loss in freshwater fish, though the
causative DNA alterations were not known. Here we show that freshwater
EDA alleles have cis-acting regulatory changes
that reduce expression in developing plates and spines. An identical T → G
base pair change is found in EDA enhancers of divergent low-plated
fish. Recreation of the T → G change in a marine enhancer strongly reduces
expression in posterior armor plates. Bead implantation and cell culture experiments
show that Wnt signaling strongly activates the marine EDA enhancer,
and the freshwater T → G change reduces Wnt responsiveness. Thus parallel
evolution of low-plated sticklebacks has occurred through a shared DNA regulatory
change, which reduces the sensitivity of an EDA enhancer to Wnt
signaling, and alters expression in developing armor plates while preserving
expression in other tissues. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05290.001 Stickleback fish develop bony plates on their surface to protect themselves from
predators. The extent and pattern of their bony armor depends on their habitat:
marine sticklebacks are typically covered from head to tail with bony plates, but
freshwater sticklebacks retain only a few plates on their sides. One gene that promotes the formation of the bony plates is called
ectodysplasin (EDA). This encodes a signaling
protein that is important for the development of the skeleton, skin and many other
tissues. Variations in the sequence of this gene are shared among different
stickleback populations worldwide. However, it has not been clear which genetic
changes can explain how lightly armored freshwater sticklebacks could have evolved
from their well-armored marine ancestors on several separate occasions. Here, O'Brown et al. studied EDA in marine and groups of
freshwater sticklebacks that have evolved in different locations around the world.
The experiments show that the level of expression of EDA in the
developing plates and spines is lower in the freshwater fish. O'Brown et al.
thought this could be due to genetic changes in regions of EDA that
lie outside the region that encodes the protein, so called ‘regulatory
elements’. Indeed, further experiments found that all freshwater fish have a small change in the
DNA of a regulatory element that switches on the gene in plate-forming regions of the
body. When this change was introduced into marine sticklebacks, the fish had lower
levels of gene expression in these plate-forming regions. These findings demonstrate that lightly armored sticklebacks have evolved multiple
times from their well-armored marine ancestors through the same small change in their
DNA that alters the expression of the EDA gene. The next challenge
will be to understand why this particular small change in DNA appears to be favored
over all the other changes that could occur in the regulatory element, and to see if
factors that act through this regulatory switch also modify armor structures in
natural populations. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05290.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M O'Brown
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Brian R Summers
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Felicity C Jones
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - Shannon D Brady
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
| | - David M Kingsley
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, United States
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6
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Jones FC, Chan YF, Schmutz J, Grimwood J, Brady SD, Southwick AM, Absher DM, Myers RM, Reimchen TE, Deagle BE, Schluter D, Kingsley DM. A genome-wide SNP genotyping array reveals patterns of global and repeated species-pair divergence in sticklebacks. Curr Biol 2011; 22:83-90. [PMID: 22197244 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Genes underlying repeated adaptive evolution in natural populations are still largely unknown. Stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus) have undergone a recent dramatic evolutionary radiation, generating numerous examples of marine-freshwater species pairs and a small number of benthic-limnetic species pairs found within single lakes [1]. We have developed a new genome-wide SNP genotyping array to study patterns of genetic variation in sticklebacks over a wide geographic range, and to scan the genome for regions that contribute to repeated evolution of marine-freshwater or benthic-limnetic species pairs. Surveying 34 global populations with 1,159 informative markers revealed substantial genetic variation, with predominant patterns reflecting demographic history and geographic structure. After correcting for geographic structure and filtering for neutral markers, we detected large repeated shifts in allele frequency at some loci, identifying both known and novel loci likely contributing to marine-freshwater and benthic-limnetic divergence. Several novel loci fall close to genes implicated in epithelial barrier or immune functions, which have likely changed as sticklebacks adapt to contrasting environments. Specific alleles differentiating sympatric benthic-limnetic species pairs are shared in nearby solitary populations, suggesting an allopatric origin for adaptive variants and selection pressures unrelated to sympatry in the initial formation of these classic vertebrate species pairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicity C Jones
- Department of Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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7
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Greenwood AK, Jones FC, Chan YF, Brady SD, Absher DM, Grimwood J, Schmutz J, Myers RM, Kingsley DM, Peichel CL. The genetic basis of divergent pigment patterns in juvenile threespine sticklebacks. Heredity (Edinb) 2011; 107:155-66. [PMID: 21304547 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2011.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal pigment patterns are important for a range of functions, including camouflage and communication. Repeating pigment patterns, such as stripes, bars and spots have been of particular interest to developmental and theoretical biologists, but the genetic basis of natural variation in such patterns is largely unexplored. In this study, we identify a difference in a periodic pigment pattern among juvenile threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) from different environments. Freshwater sticklebacks exhibit prominent vertical bars that visually break up the body shape, but sticklebacks from marine populations do not. We hypothesize that these distinct pigment patterns are tuned to provide crypsis in different habitats. This phenotypic difference is widespread and appears in most of the freshwater populations that we sampled. We used quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping in freshwater-marine F2 hybrids to elucidate the genetic architecture underlying divergence in this pigmentation pattern. We identified two QTL that were significantly associated with variation in barring. Interestingly, these QTL were associated with two distinct aspects of the pigment pattern: melanophore number and overall pigment level. We compared the QTL locations with positions of known pigment candidate genes in the stickleback genome. We also identified two major QTL for juvenile body size, providing new insights into the genetic basis of juvenile growth rates in natural populations. In summary, although there is a growing literature describing simple genetic bases for adaptive coloration differences, this study emphasizes that pigment patterns can also possess a more complex genetic architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Greenwood
- Division of Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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8
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Chan YF, Marks ME, Jones FC, Villarreal G, Shapiro MD, Brady SD, Southwick AM, Absher DM, Grimwood J, Schmutz J, Myers RM, Petrov D, Jónsson B, Schluter D, Bell MA, Kingsley DM. Adaptive evolution of pelvic reduction in sticklebacks by recurrent deletion of a Pitx1 enhancer. Science 2010; 327:302-5. [PMID: 20007865 PMCID: PMC3109066 DOI: 10.1126/science.1182213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 695] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying major phenotypic changes that have evolved repeatedly in nature are generally unknown. Pelvic loss in different natural populations of threespine stickleback fish has occurred through regulatory mutations deleting a tissue-specific enhancer of the Pituitary homeobox transcription factor 1 (Pitx1) gene. The high prevalence of deletion mutations at Pitx1 may be influenced by inherent structural features of the locus. Although Pitx1 null mutations are lethal in laboratory animals, Pitx1 regulatory mutations show molecular signatures of positive selection in pelvic-reduced populations. These studies illustrate how major expression and morphological changes can arise from single mutational leaps in natural populations, producing new adaptive alleles via recurrent regulatory alterations in a key developmental control gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingguang Frank Chan
- Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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9
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Olivier M, Aggarwal A, Allen J, Almendras AA, Bajorek ES, Beasley EM, Brady SD, Bushard JM, Bustos VI, Chu A, Chung TR, De Witte A, Denys ME, Dominguez R, Fang NY, Foster BD, Freudenberg RW, Hadley D, Hamilton LR, Jeffrey TJ, Kelly L, Lazzeroni L, Levy MR, Lewis SC, Liu X, Lopez FJ, Louie B, Marquis JP, Martinez RA, Matsuura MK, Misherghi NS, Norton JA, Olshen A, Perkins SM, Perou AJ, Piercy C, Piercy M, Qin F, Reif T, Sheppard K, Shokoohi V, Smick GA, Sun WL, Stewart EA, Fernando J, Tran NM, Trejo T, Vo NT, Yan SC, Zierten DL, Zhao S, Sachidanandam R, Trask BJ, Myers RM, Cox DR. A high-resolution radiation hybrid map of the human genome draft sequence. Science 2001; 291:1298-302. [PMID: 11181994 DOI: 10.1126/science.1057437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed a physical map of the human genome by using a panel of 90 whole-genome radiation hybrids (the TNG panel) in conjunction with 40,322 sequence-tagged sites (STSs) derived from random genomic sequences as well as expressed sequences. Of 36,678 STSs on the TNG radiation hybrid map, only 3604 (9.8%) were absent from the unassembled draft sequence of the human genome. Of 20,030 STSs ordered on the TNG map as well as the assembled human genome draft sequence and the Celera assembled human genome sequence, 36% of the STSs had a discrepant order between the working draft sequence and the Celera sequence. The TNG map order was identical to one of the two sequence orders in 60% of these discrepant cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Olivier
- Stanford Human Genome Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, 975 California Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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Ferris CD, Jaffrey SR, Sawa A, Takahashi M, Brady SD, Barrow RK, Tysoe SA, Wolosker H, Barañano DE, Doré S, Poss KD, Snyder SH. Haem oxygenase-1 prevents cell death by regulating cellular iron. Nat Cell Biol 1999; 1:152-7. [PMID: 10559901 DOI: 10.1038/11072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 425] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Haem oxygenase-1 (HO1) is a heat-shock protein that is induced by stressful stimuli. Here we demonstrate a cytoprotective role for HO1: cell death produced by serum deprivation, staurosporine or etoposide is markedly accentuated in cells from mice with a targeted deletion of the HO1 gene, and greatly reduced in cells that overexpress HO1. Iron efflux from cells is augmented by HO1 transfection and reduced in HO1-deficient fibroblasts. Iron accumulation in HO1-deficient cells explains their death: iron chelators protect HO1-deficient fibroblasts from cell death. Thus, cytoprotection by HO1 is attributable to its augmentation of iron efflux, reflecting a role for HO1 in modulating intracellular iron levels and regulating cell viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Ferris
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA.
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