In situ hybridization analysis of odorant receptor expression in the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta

The turtle olfactory organ consists of upper (UCE) and lower (LCE) chamber epithelium, which send axons to the ventral and dorsal portions of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. Generally, the UCE is associated with glands and contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), while the LCE is devoid of glands and contains microvillous ORNs. However, the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta appears to be a single olfactory system morphologically: there are no associated glands; ciliated ORNs are distributed throughout the olfactory organ; and the olfactory bulb is not divided into ventral and dorsal portions. In this study, we analyzed the expression of odorant receptors (ORs), the major olfactory receptors in turtles, in the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ, via in situ hybridization. Of 690 ORs, 375 were classified as class I and 315 as class II. Some class II ORs were expressed predominantly in the posterior dorsomedial walls of the nasal cavity, while other class II ORs and all class I ORs examined were expressed in the remaining region. These results suggest that the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ can be divided into two regions according to the expression of ORs.

Morphological Analysis of the Olfactory System of the Pig-Nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta

The turtle olfactory organ consists of the upper (UCE) and lower (LCE) chamber epithelium, projecting to the ventral and dorsal parts of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. The UCE is associated with glands, contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons, and is assumed to detect odorants primarily in air, while the LCE is devoid of glands, contains microvillous olfactory receptor neurons, and is assumed to detect odorants primarily in water. Examining the olfactory system of the pig-nosed turtle, Carettochelys insculpta, this study found that both the upper and lower chambers of the nasal cavity were lined with sensory epithelium devoid of associated glands and contained ciliated olfactory receptor neurons. Moreover, the olfactory bulbs were not divided into dorsal and ventral parts. These results suggest that the olfactory system of the pig-nosed turtle is a single system specialized for detecting odorants in water.

Expression patterns of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of turtle embryos

Many tetrapod vertebrates have two distinct olfactory organs, the olfactory epithelium (OE) and vomeronasal organ (VNO). In turtles, the olfactory organ consists of two types of sensory epithelia, the upper chamber epithelium (UCE; corresponding to the OE) and the lower chamber epithelium (LCE; corresponding to the VNO). In many turtle species, the UCE contains ciliated olfactory receptor cells (ORCs) and the LCE contains microvillous ORCs. To date, several transcription factors involved in the development of the OE and VNO have been identified in mammals. Fez family zinc-finger protein 1 and 2 (Fezf1 and 2) are expressed in the OE and VNO, respectively, of mouse embryos, and are involved in the development and maintenance of ORCs. B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 11B (Bcl11b) is expressed in the mouse embryo OE except the dorsomedial parts of the nasal cavity, and regulates the expression of odorant receptors in the ORCs. In this study, we examined the expression of Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of embryos in three turtle species, Pelodiscus sinensis, Trachemys scripta elegans, and Centrochelys sulcata, to evaluate their involvement in the development of reptile olfactory organs. In all three turtle species, Bcl11b was expressed in the UCE, Fezf2 in the LCE, and Fezf1 in both the UCE and LCE. These results imply that the roles of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in olfactory organ development are conserved among mammals and turtles.

Expression of type 1 vomeronasal receptors in the olfactory organ of the African lungfish, Protopterus dolloi

The vomeronasal organ is an olfactory organ found in amphibians and higher vertebrates. Type 1 vomeronasal receptors, one of the major olfactory receptors in vertebrates, are expressed in the vomeronasal organ in mammals. In amphibians and fish, they are expressed in the olfactory epithelium. The lungfish, which is the species of fish most closely related to amphibians, has a primitive vomeronasal organ: the recess epithelium. Expression of type 1 vomeronasal receptors has been reported in both the olfactory epithelium and the recess epithelium in three species of African lungfish and one species of South American lungfish. However, a previous study suggested that in the African lungfish Protopterus dolloi these receptors are expressed only in the olfactory epithelium. In this study, we identified 21 type 1 vomeronasal receptor genes in P. dolloi and examined the expression sites in the olfactory organ. In P. dolloi, most cells expressing the type 1 vomeronasal receptor were distributed in the olfactory epithelium, but a few were also found in the recess epithelium. This implies that the functions of the olfactory epithelium and the primitive vomeronasal organ are incompletely separated, and that all extant African and South American lungfish share this trait.

In situ hybridization analysis of olfactory receptor expression in the sea turtle olfactory organ

The olfactory organ of turtles consists of an upper chamber epithelium (UCE) with associated glands, and a lower chamber epithelium (LCE) devoid of glands. The UCE and LCE are referred to as the air-nose and the water-nose, respectively, because the UCE is thought to detect airborne odorants, while the LCE detects waterborne odorants. However, it is not clear how the two are used in the olfactory organ. Odorant receptors (ORs) are the major olfactory receptors in turtles; they are classified as class I and II ORs, distinguished by their primary structure. Class I ORs are suggested to be receptive to water-soluble ligands and class II ORs to volatile ligands. This study analyzed the expression of class I and II ORs in hatchlings of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, through in situ hybridization, to determine the localization of OR-expressing cells in the olfactory organ. Class I OR-expressing cells were distributed mainly in the LCE, implying that the LCE is receptive to waterborne odorants. Class II OR-expressing cells were distributed in both the UCE and LCE, implying that the entire olfactory organ is receptive to airborne odorants. The widespread expression of class II ORs may increase opportunities for sea turtles to sense airborne odorants.

Type 1 vomeronasal receptor expression in juvenile and adult lungfish olfactory organ

Lungfish are the most closely related fish to tetrapods. The olfactory organ of lungfish contains lamellae and abundant recesses at the base of lamellae. Based on the ultrastructural and histochemical characteristics, the lamellar olfactory epithelium (OE), covering the surface of lamellae, and the recess epithelium, contained in the recesses, are thought to correspond to the OE of teleosts and the vomeronasal organ (VNO) of tetrapods. With increasing body size, the recesses increase in number and distribution range in the olfactory organ. In tetrapods, the expression of olfactory receptors is different between the OE and VNO; for instance, the type 1 vomeronasal receptor (V1R) is expressed only in the OE in amphibians and mainly in the VNO in mammals. We recently reported that V1R-expressing cells are contained mainly in the lamellar OE but also rarely in the recess epithelium in the olfactory organ of lungfish of approximately 30 cm body length. However, it is unclear whether the distribution of V1R-expressing cells in the olfactory organ varies during development. In this study, we compared the expression of V1Rs in the olfactory organs between juveniles and adults of the African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus and South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa. The density of V1R-expressing cells was higher in the lamellae than in the recesses in all specimens evaluated, and this pattern was more pronounced in juveniles than adults. In addition, the juveniles showed a higher density of V1R-expressing cells in the lamellae compared with the adults. Our results imply that differences in lifestyle between juveniles and adults are related to differences in the density of V1R-expressing cells in the lamellae of lungfish.

Type 1 vomeronasal receptors expressed in the olfactory organs of two African lungfish, Protopterus annectens and Protopterus amphibius

Lungfish are the fish related most closely to tetrapods. The olfactory organ of lungfish contains two distinct sensory epithelia: the lamellar olfactory epithelium (OE) and the recess epithelium (RecE). Based on their ultrastructural and histological characteristics, the lamellar OE and the RecE are considered to correspond respectively to the teleost OE and a primitive vomeronasal organ (VNO). In tetrapods, the OE and VNO have been shown to express different families of olfactory receptors; for example, in mammals, the OE expresses odorant receptors and trace amine-associated receptors, while the VNO expresses type 1 (V1Rs) and type 2 (V2Rs) vomeronasal receptors. In the present study, we examined the expression of V1Rs in the olfactory organs of two African lungfish, Protopterus annectens and Protopterus amphibius. RNA sequencing and phylogenetic analyses identified 29 V1R genes in P. annectens and 50 V1R genes in P. amphibius. Most V1Rs identified in these lungfish were classified as the tetrapod-type V1Rs initially found in tetrapods and distinct from fish-type V1Rs. In teleost, which all lack a VNO, all olfactory receptors are expressed in the OE, while in Xenopus V1Rs are expressed exclusively in the OE, and not in the VNO. In situ hybridization analysis indicated that lungfish V1Rs were expressed mainly in the lamellar OE and rarely in the RecE. These results imply that V1R expression in lungfish represents an intermediate step toward the complete segregation of V1R expression between the OE and VNO, reflecting the phylogenetic position of lungfish between teleosts and amphibians.

Distribution of cells expressing vomeronasal receptors in the olfactory organ of turtles

Generally, the olfactory organ of vertebrates consists of the olfactory epithelium (OE) and the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The OE contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), while the VNO contains microvillous ORNs. The ORNs in the OE express odorant receptors (ORs), while those in the VNO express type 1 and type 2 vomeronasal receptors (V1Rs and V2Rs). In turtles, the olfactory organ consists of the upper (UCE) and lower chamber epithelia (LCE). The UCE contains ciliated ORNs, while the LCE contains microvillous ORNs. Here we investigated the distribution of cells expressing vomeronasal receptors in the olfactory organ of turtles. The turtle vomeronasal receptors were encoded by two V1R genes and two V2R genes. Among them, V2R1 and V2R26 were mainly expressed in the LCE, while V1R3 was expressed both in the UCE and LCE. Notably, vomeronasal receptors were expressed by a limited number of ORNs, which was confirmed by the expression of the gene encoding TRPC2, an ion channel involved in the signal transduction of vomeronasal receptors. Furthermore, expression of ORs by the majority of ORNs was suggested by the expression of the gene encoding CNGA2, an ion channel involved in the signal transduction of ORs. Thus, olfaction of turtle seems to be mediated mainly by the ORs rather than the vomeronasal receptors. More importantly, the relationship between the fine structure of ORNs and the expression of olfactory receptors are not conserved among turtles and other vertebrates.

Immunohistochemical analysis of the development of olfactory organs in two species of turtles Pelodiscus sinensis and Mauremys reevesii

The nasal cavity of turtles is composed of the upper and lower chambers, lined by the upper and lower chamber epithelia, respectively. In many turtles including the Reeve's turtle Mauremys reevesii, the upper chamber epithelium contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and the lower chamber epithelium contains microvillous ORNs. However, in the olfactory organ of the Chinese soft-shelled turtle Pelodiscus sinensis, both the upper and lower chamber epithelia contain ciliated ORNs. In the present study, we immunohistochemically examined the developmental process of olfactory organs in soft-shelled turtle and the Reeve's turtle to clarify the developmental origins of the lower chamber epithelium in these turtles. Obtained data indicate that olfactory organs of these turtles have identical origin and follow similar process of development, suggesting that, in the lower chamber epithelium of the nasal cavity, ciliated ORNs differentiate in soft-shelled turtle whereas microvillous ORNs differentiate in the Reeve's turtle.

Number of olfactory receptor neurons in the Chinese soft-shelled turtle

The olfactory organ of turtle consists of the upper chamber epithelium (UCE) and the lower chamber epithelium (LCE), detecting air-borne odorants and water-borne odorants, respectively. In this study, we investigated the number of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) in the UCE and LCE of soft-shelled turtle in order to find their possible differences among terrestrial, semi-aquatic and highly-aquatic turtles. The number of ORNs in the soft-shelled turtle was higher in the LCE than in the UCE, suggesting its close relationship to the environment the turtle lives. In addition, relative abundance of the ORNs in the LCE to the UCE varied in accordance with the size of individuals, although its functional significance remains elusive.

Morphological study on the olfactory systems of the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina

In this study, the olfactory system of a semi-aquatic turtle, the snapping turtle, has been morphologically investigated by electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry, and lectin histochemistry. The nasal cavity of snapping turtle was divided into the upper and lower chambers, lined by the sensory epithelium containing ciliated and non-ciliated olfactory receptor neurons, respectively. Each neuron expressed both Gαolf, the α-subunit of G-proteins coupling to the odorant receptors, and Gαo, the α-subunit of G-proteins coupling to the type 2 vomeronasal receptors. The axons originating from the upper chamber epithelium projected to the ventral part of the olfactory bulb, while those from the lower chamber epithelium to the dorsal part of the olfactory bulb. Despite the identical expression of G-protein α-subunits in the olfactory receptor neurons, these two projections were clearly distinguished from each other by the differential expression of glycoconjugates. In conclusion, these data indicate the presence of two types of olfactory systems in the snapping turtle. Topographic arrangement of the upper and lower chambers and lack of the associated glands in the lower chamber epithelium suggest their possible involvement in the detection of odorants: upper chamber epithelium in the air and the lower chamber epithelium in the water.

Histochemical and ultrastructural analyses of the lubrication systems in the olfactory organs of soft-shelled turtle

In general, the nasal cavity of turtles is divided into two chambers: the upper chamber, lined with the olfactory epithelium containing ciliated olfactory receptor cells, and the lower chamber, lined with the vomeronasal epithelium containing microvillous receptor cells. In the nasal cavity of soft-shelled turtles, however, differences between the upper and lower chamber epithelia are unclear due to the presence of ciliated receptor cells in both epithelia. In the olfactory organ of vertebrates, the surface of sensory epithelium is covered with secretory products of associated glands and supporting cells, playing important roles in the olfaction by dissolving odorants and transporting them to the olfactory receptors. Here, the associated glands and supporting cells in the olfactory organ of soft-shelled turtles were analyzed histochemically and ultrastructurally. The upper chamber epithelium possessed associated glands, constituted by cells containing serous secretory granules; whereas, the lower chamber epithelium did not. In the upper chamber epithelium, secretory granules filled the supranuclear region of supporting cells, while most of the granules were distributed near the free border of supporting cells in the lower chamber epithelium. The secretory granules in the supporting cells of both epithelia were seromucous, but alcian blue stained them differently from each other. In addition, distinct expression of carbohydrates was suggested by the differences in lectin binding. These data indicate the quantitative and qualitative differences in the secretory properties between the upper and lower chamber epithelia, suggesting their distinct roles in the olfaction.

Immunohistochemical analysis for G protein in the olfactory organs of soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis

In turtles, the epithelia lining the upper and lower chambers of the nasal cavity project axons to the ventral and dorsal parts of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. In a semi-aquatic soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, more than 1,000 odorant receptor genes have been found, but it is not known where they are expressed. In this study, we aimed to clarify the distribution of cells expressing these genes in the olfactory organs of soft-shelled turtles. Immunoreactions for the Gαolf, the α subunit of G protein coupled to the odorant receptors, were detected on the surface of epithelia lining both the upper and lower chambers of the nasal cavity. The receptor cells in the epithelium of both chambers possessed cilia on the tip of their dendrites, whereas microvillous, non-ciliated, receptor cells were not found. These data suggest that the odorant receptor genes are expressed by the ciliated receptor cells in the upper and lower chamber epithelia. Precise location of the vomeronasal epithelium is not known at present.

Transient appearance of the epithelial invagination in the olfactory pit of chick embryos

In this study, immunohistochemical analysis has been performed using neuronal markers (GAP43, NCAM and PGP 9.5) to characterize the epithelial invagination in the medial wall of the olfactory pit in the chick embryos. At stages 26–27, the epithelial invagination was primarily composed of characteristic round-shaped cells, which were negative for neuronal markers. These cells were also found in the medial wall of the olfactory pit at stage 24, whereas the epithelial invagination was not observed at any stages other than stages 26–27. The possible relationship between the round-shaped cells and the migratory cells is discussed.

Analysis of glycoproteins produced by the associated gland in the olfactory organ of lungfish

The olfactory organ of African lungfish, Protopterus annectens, contains two distinct sensory epithelia: the lamellar olfactory epithelium and the recess epithelium. These epithelia correspond to the olfactory epithelium and the vomeronasal organ of tetrapods, respectively. In contrast to the lamellar olfactory epithelium, which has no associated gland, the recess epithelium is equipped with associated glands. Although the glandular cells and/or the supporting cells are generally presumed to secrete proteins involved in the function of olfactory sensory epithelia, the properties of these proteins in lungfish have not been evaluated to date. In this study, we investigated the associated glands in the olfactory organ of lungfish by transmission electron microscopy and found that the glandular cells contain numerous secretory granules and secrete them from the apical membrane. In addition, we analyzed the olfactory organ by lectin histochemistry using 16 biotinylated lectins. All lectins labeled the secretory granules in the glandular cells with different staining patterns from those of the supporting cells in the lamellar olfactory epithelium or in the recess epithelium. Furthermore, lectin blotting analysis showed that multiple bands were detected by the lectins which specifically labeled the glandular epithelium of the olfactory organ. These results indicate that the secretory products of the associated glands in the recess epithelium have different properties from those of the supporting cells in the olfactory sensory epithelia and contain multiple glycoproteins with different carbohydrate moieties.

Localization of the primordial vomeronasal organ and its relationship to the associated gland in lungfish

The lungfish, the closest fish to tetrapods, has two types of sensory epithelia in the olfactory organ: the lamellar olfactory epithelium and the recess epithelium. The former resembles the olfactory epithelium of ordinary teleosts and the latter resembles the vomeronasal organ of tetrapods with respect to the G-protein expressions and the morphological properties of olfactory receptor cells. In contrast to the lamellar olfactory epithelium covering the surface of olfactory lamella, the recess epithelium, together with the glandular epithelium, lines the recesses at the base of olfactory lamellae and is separated from the surrounding tissues by nonsensory epithelium. In the present study, we examined the distribution of these recesses and the relationship between the recess epithelium and the associated gland in the nasal sac of lungfish. We found that the posterior part of the nasal sac contained more recesses than the anterior one, and the medial one contained more recesses than the lateral one. In addition, virtually all recesses consisted of both the recess epithelium and the glandular epithelium. Furthermore, the glandular epithelium was invariably situated proximal to the midline raphe of the nasal sac, and the recess epithelium distal to it. Possible roles of the recess epithelium and the glandular epithelium are discussed.

Histological and ultrastructural characteristics of the primordial vomeronasal organ in lungfish

Many vertebrates have two anatomically distinct olfactory organs--the olfactory epithelium and the vomeronasal organ--to detect chemicals such as general odorants and pheromones in their environment. The vomeronasal organ is not present in fish but is present in vertebrates of a higher order than amphibians. Among all extant fishes, the lungfish is considered to be genetically and phylogenetically closest to tetrapods. In this study, we examined the olfactory organs of African lungfish, Protopterus annectens, by lectin histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. Two types of sensory epithelia were identified in the olfactory organ--the olfactory epithelium covering the surface of lamellae and the sensory epithelium lining the recesses both at the base of lamellae and in the wall of the nasal sac--and designated here as the lamellar olfactory epithelium and the recess epithelium, respectively. Based on analysis of G-protein expression and ultrastructure, the lamellar olfactory epithelium resembled the olfactory epithelium of ordinary teleosts and the recess epithelium resembled the vomeronasal organ of tetrapods. Furthermore, lectin histochemistry demonstrated that the axons from the recess epithelium converge and project to the ventrolateral part of the olfactory bulb, suggesting that lungfish possess a region homologous to the accessory olfactory bulb of tetrapods. Based on these results, it seems appropriate to refer to the recess epithelium as "a primordium of the vomeronasal organ." This study may provide important clues to elucidate how the vomeronasal organ emerged during the evolution of vertebrates.

Distinct axonal projections from two types of olfactory receptor neurons in the middle chamber epithelium of Xenopus laevis

Most vertebrates have two olfactory organs, the olfactory epithelium (OE) and the vomeronasal organ. African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, which spends their entire life in water, have three types of olfactory sensory epithelia: the OE, the middle chamber epithelium (MCE) and the vomeronasal epithelium (VNE). The axons from these epithelia project to the dorsal part of the main olfactory bulb (d-MOB), the ventral part of the MOB (v-MOB) and the accessory olfactory bulb, respectively. In the MCE, which is thought to function in water, two types of receptor neurons (RNs) are intermingled and express one of two types of G-proteins, Golf and Go, respectively. However, axonal projections from these RNs to the v-MOB are not fully understood. In this study, we examined the expression of G-proteins by immunohistochemistry to reveal the projection pattern of olfactory RNs of Xenopus laevis, especially those in the MCE. The somata of Golf- and Go-positive RNs were separately situated in the upper and lower layers of the MCE. The former were equipped with cilia and the latter with microvilli on their apical surface. These RNs are suggested to project to the rostromedial and the caudolateral regions of the v-MOB, respectively. Such segregation patterns observed in the MCE and v-MOB are also present in the OE and olfactory bulbs of most bony fish. Thus, Xenopus laevis is a very interesting model to understand the evolution of vertebrate olfactory systems because they have a primitive, fish-type olfactory system in addition to the mammalian-type olfactory system.

Ultrastructure of the olfactory epithelium in a flatfish, barfin flounder (Verasper moseri)

In this study, we examined the olfactory epithelium (OE) of the barfin flounder by transmission electron microscopy. As in the case of the ordinary teleost, the OE of the barfin flounder had 3 types of olfactory receptor cells (ciliated olfactory receptor cell, microvillous olfactory receptor cell and crypt cell), 3 types of supporting cells (ciliated, microvillous and crypt supporting cells) and basal cells. Each type of OE cells in the barfin flounder had similar ultrastructure to that of the ordinary teleost. Crypt cell is the third type of olfactory receptor cell unique to fish, whose function is unclear. The barfin flounder may be a suitable material to study crypt cells because it has relatively abundant crypt cells in the OE.

[High resolution ultrasound examination in the diagnosis of the undescended testis in the inguinal region]

Twenty-six undescended testes in 22 patients between 1 and 31 years old were evaluated with ultrasonographic examination between October, 1981 and December, 1985. All 22 patients were operated on, and the accuracy of the ultrasonic diagnosis was evaluated in comparison to that of palpation diagnosis. Fourteen of 26 testes could be palpated preoperatively and these were all identified ultrasonographically and surgically. Twelve testes could not be palpated. On these 12 testes, surgical exploration revealed 9 testes in the inguinal region and absence of 3 testes. Ultrasound examination predicted its presence in 5 of 9 testes and its absence in all 3 testes. Both sonography and palpation failed to identify their presence in 4 tests. Thus, sensitivity of ultrasound examination was 82.6%, specificity 100% and accuracy 84.6% retrospectively. We conclude that ultrasound examination is useful in diagnosis of impalpable undescended testes in inguinal region.

[Plasma aldosterone concentration in patients with primary aldosteronism in the last decade]

We analyzed the chronological variation of plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) in 27 surgically confirmed patients with primary aldosteronism (PA) during the period from 1975 to 1984. PAC values in PA-patients were significantly higher than those in 82 age-matched patients with essential hypertension (EHT). However, although average PAC in the PA-patients declined consistently in recent years, no chronological trend of PAC was observed in the EHT-patients. Therefore, the distributions of PAC in the two groups of patients overlapped in the last few years. Such chronological variations of PAC in the PA-patients were not related to serum potassium concentration, blood pressure level on admission, duration of hypertension, or diameter of the adrenal adenomas. In some recently observed cases of PA, not only was the basal PAC relatively low, PAC also responded to either salt depletion or salt loading. These findings could not be explained simply by the change of methodology for PAC determination but rather by the technological advance of diagnostic radiology. As a result, PA might be diagnosed in the early stages or before becoming fullblown. Further study should be necessary to clarify the exact mechanism.

[A simple radioimmunoassay determination of urinary aldosterone using 125I-labeled ligand [ALDOCTK-125KIT] and its clinical application]

A method of radioimmunoassay for urinary aldosterone excretion (AER) using 125I-labeled ligand [ALDOCTK-125KIT] is described. The sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility and accuracy of this method were compared with the 3H-RIA method previously reported. Since the extraction method using ALDOCTK-125KIT was considered to be preferable to the direct method, the former method was applied to the present study. An excellent correlation was found between the values determined by the 3H-RIA method and the extraction method (r = 0.935, p less than 0.001, Y = 0.89X + 0.80, n = 146). The within-assay and the between-assay coefficient of variation was 7.7--15.0% and 9.7--12.2%, respectively. As a clinical application, the circadian variation of AER was investigated in 5 control subjects and groups of essential hypertension (EHT), primary aldosteronism (PA), chronic glomerulonephritis (CGN) and Cushing's syndrome, each of which consisted of 5 patients, all of which had serum creatinine concentrations of less than 1.2 mg/dl. Under a control diet containing 10 g of salt per day, urine was collected in 4-hour pools starting at 8:00 for the ensuing 24 hours, and AER was determined by means of both 3H-RIA and the extraction method. The difference of the values between the peak and the nadir in each subject was statistically significant, and marked and identical circadian variations of AER with the peak and the nadir at the period of 4:00 to 12:00 and 20:00 to 4:00 were observed in the control, EHT, PA and CGN groups. In the Cushing group, however, the circadian variation of AER was different from the other 4 groups: the peak and the nadir of AER occurred at the period of 20:00 to 24:00 and 4:00 to 8:00, respectively. The circadian variation of AER became more obvious in all groups including the Cushing, when each value was expressed in the percentage of the mean. AER under the control diet was 9.38 +/- 2.04 micrograms/day in the control subjects. In PA and CGN, AER was significantly higher, and in the Cushing group, it was significantly lower than that observed in the control. However, no difference was found in AER between the control and EHT. AERs in both 4-hour and 24-hour urine specimens measured by ALDOCTK-125KIT were consistent with those by the 3H-RIA method.

[Comparative double-blind study of cefroxadine and cephalexin in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infection]

To evaluate the efficacy, safety, and utility of cefroxadine (CXD) for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections, a double blind study comparing CXD with cephalexin (CEX) was carried out. Patient received either 1,500 mg/day of CXD 3 times a day, or 2,000 mg/day of CEX 4 times a day for 5 days by oral route, and the following results were obtained. Of the 305 patients, clinical efficacies were evaluated in 220 cases (CXD 105 cases, CEX 115 cases) except that excluded or dropped out. Side effect was evaluated in 301 cases (CXD 150 cases, CEX 151 cases). There was no statistically significant difference in the back ground characteristics between the 2 groups. Overall clinical assessment by the committee according to the "Criteria for Evaluation of Clinical Efficacy of Antimicrobial Agents on Urinary Tract Infection" patients evaluated as better than "good" were 64 of 105 (61.0%) for CXD and 75 of 115 (65.2%) for CEX. The difference between the 2 groups was not statistically significant. In effect on pyuria, patients evaluated as better than "decreased" were 58 of 105 (55.2%) for CXD and 69 of 115 (60.0%) for CEX. The difference between the 2 groups was not statistically significant. In effect of bacteriuria, patients evaluated as better than "decreased" were 57 of 105 (54.3%) for CXD and 69 of 115 (60.0%) for CEX. The difference between the 2 groups was not statistically significant. Analyses were stratified according to classification by the type of infection, diagnosis, degree of pyuria before treatment, and bacterial count before treatment. There were no statistically significant differences between the 2 treatment groups as to any item. In evaluation by attending physician, patients evaluated as better than "good" were 81 of 140 (57.9%) for CXD, and 85 of 141 (60.3%) for CEX. Statistically significant difference was not observed between the 2 groups. In drug usefulness by attending physician, patients evaluated as better than "usefulness" were 106 of 140 (75.7%) for CXD, and 109 of 141 (77.3%) for CEX. The difference between the 2 groups was not statistically significant. In evaluation of the infections with sensitive species to both CXD and CEX by the committee according to "Criteria for Evaluation of Clinical Efficacy of Antimicrobial Agents on Urinary Tract Infections, overall clinical efficacies were evaluated in 102 (CXD 48 cases, CEX 54 cases) which were infected with sensitive species. There was no statistically significant difference in the back ground characteristics between the 2 treatment groups.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Average urinary excretion of sodium in 24 hours can be estimated from a spot-urine specimen

We assessed to what extent sodium intake can be estimated from the sodium content of a spot-urine specimen (spot-UNa) collected within 4 hours after the first voiding upon awakening but before breakfast. Subjects were asked to collect spot-urine and 24-hour urine specimens other than the spot-urine for a 3-day period, either successively or intermittently. The coefficient of correlation between spot-UNa and urinary excretion of sodium in 24 hours (24-h UNa) collected on the first day was 0.47. When the coefficient of the variation of creatinine excretion in the spot-urine was above 20%, the sample was discarded as the "outlier', and in this case the coefficient of correlation was 0.725. A marked fluctuation of creatinine excretion in spot-urine was considered to represent technical errors at the time of the spot-urine collection. The coefficient of variation of intra-individual 24-h UNa exceeded 20%, suggesting that a single determination of 24-h UNa does not represent the individual average of daily urinary excretion of sodium. It is concluded that the determination of a substantial number of spot-urine specimens to estimate daily salt ingestion of a given subject may be more reliable than a single determination of 24-h UNa, if the "outlier' of creatinine excretion in spot-urine specimen is excluded from the determination of spot-UNa. The average urinary excretion of sodium in 24 hours by the Japanese subjects investigated here was 218 +/- 67 mEq.

[Plasma cortisol concentrations and circadian rhythm in healthy young Japanese and caucasians (author's transl)]

We report herein a method of solid-phase radioimmunoassay (RIA) for assessment of plasma cortisol concentration using 125I-labeled ligand [CORTCTK-125]. Plasma cortisol concentrations and its circadian rhythm in healthy young Japanese and American whie women were also evaluated using CORTCTK-125. Nineteen Japanese women, of an average age of 20.3 +/- 0.1 years, and 12 Caucasians of mixed ethnic origin (Minnesota), average 20.0 +/- 0.5 years, were studied using a similar protocol. The distribution of the menstrual stage of the two groups was similar. Blood was drawn from each subject into EDTA containers at 4-hour intervals starting at 0800 on one day and was continued for the ensuing 24 hours. The samples were immediately placed in a refrigerated centrifuge at 4 degrees C, and then stored at -20 degrees C until the assay. The samples from Minnesota were packed in dry ice and brought by air to Japan. Determinations of plasma cortisol concentration in samples from both groups were carried out at Kyushu University. Advantages of the solid-phase RIA method are as follows: (1) 0.05 ml of plasma or serum was sufficient for determination of plasma cortisol concentrations, (2) no other solvents or solutions for the extraction or purification were required, (3) the procedure was simple and readily facilitated, and (4) the concentration of cortisol in heparin-plasma was somewhat higher than that in serum or EDTA-plasma, but there was no statistical difference. Plasma cortisol concentrations in the samples from the Japanese (19.73 +/- 1.44 on the first and 18.94 +/- 1.32 microgram/dl on the second day) and that of the American group (17.48 +/- 2.38 and 19.37 +/- 2.16 microgram/dl, respectively) at 0800 was similar. The average value of 7 determinations at 4-hour intervals was 11.01 +/- 2.00 microgram/dl in the Japanese and 10.29 +/- 1.05 microgram/dl in the American group. A remarkable and similar circadian rhythm was observed in both groups with a peak at 0800 and with nadirs at 2000 in the Japanese (4.80 +/- 0.45 microgram/dl) and 2400 in the American group (5.18 +/- 0.83 microgram/dl). There were statistically significant differences between the values at the peak and the nadir. The related subjects were then classified into Group-F (9 subjects) and Group-T (9); the former included high body mass index [BMI: body weight(kg)/body height(m)2] of more than 24.0, and the latter included a relatively lower BMI of less than 21.5. The circadian rhythm of both groups revealed a similar pattern, whereas plasma cortisol concentration was always higher in Group-F than in Group-T, at all 7 determinations. There were no significant differences except for the value at 0400. Furthermore, the average values of plasma cortisol concentration and circadian rhythm were compared; the group with a larger body surface area (BSA) (Group-L) and the group with a smaller BSA (Group-S). No difference was found in the plasma cortisol concentration of Group-L and -S, and the circadian rhythm was similar in both groups...

Antihypertensive effect of E-643, a new alpha-adrenergic blocking agent

To determine whether E-643, a new alpha-blocking agent, would reduce the blood pressure, regardless of the posture, a 1 mg dose was given 3 times daily for 7 consecutive days, to 8 male and 7 female inpatients, aged 37--73 years, with essential hypertension. Blood pressure and pulse rate were measured daily in the supine, sitting and standing positions. Before and after the treatment with E-643, plasma levels of noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, renin and aldosterone were determined, samples being obtained with the subjects recumbent and after standing upright for 60 min. A significant reduction in the systolic and diastolic blood pressures was evident in the supine (172 +/- 31/100 +/- 12 leads to 151 +/- 28/89 +/- 14 mmHg), sitting (158 +/- 22/101 +/- 11 leads to 138 +/- 28/89 +/- 15 mmHg) and standing (153 +/- 32/103 +/- 21 leads to 129 +/- 31/89 +/- 20 mmHg) positions. The reduction in blood pressure remained unchanged throughout the period of administration of E-643. Pulse rate was not affected when the subjects were supine (67 +/- 10 leads to 69 +/- 10 beats/min), but was increased in the sitting (68 +/- 10 leads to 73 +/- 9 beats/min) and standing (73 +/- 10 leads to 81 +/- 11 beats/min) positions. The increased pulse rate tended to decline during continued administration of E-643. Treatment with E-643 produced no significant change in plasma levels of adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, renin and aldosterone. The antihypertensive effect of treatment was more prominent in the patients with higher levels of plasma catecholamines and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, and was less prominent in those with higher plasma renin and aldosterone. Two patients had temporary bouts of dizziness and visual disturbances, but there were no subjective complaints during treatment.

Inhibition of cell division of Escherichia coli by a new synthetic penicillin, piperacillin

The mechanism of the action of piperacillin against Escherichia coli was investigated. This drug converted cells to filaments, but did not show lytic action in a range of concentrations below 25 mug/ml. In some of the filaments, stretched constrictions with various diameters were observed. Addition of piperacillin to a synchronous culture inhibited cell division immediately at any stage of the cell cycle. The results of morphological examination of synchronous cultures show that the percentage of filaments with a stretched constriction corresponds to that of normally septated cells before addition of the drug. Furthermore, peptidoglycan synthesis and cross-linking were not inhibited by this drug. It is likely that this drug inhibits only septum formation, but not the growth of wall, and that stretched constrictions are a result of longitudinal growth of septation caused by the drug. Examination of affinity of the drug to penicillin-binding proteins shows that protein 3 is the most sensitive, proteins 2 and 7 are moderately so, and protein 1 is sensitive only to high concentrations of the drug.

[Clinical experience with gentamicin in urinary tract infections (author's transl)]

1) Gentamicin (GM) was intramuscularly injected to 1 patient with simple acute cystitis and to 21 patients with complicated chronic urinary tract infections in the doses of 40-160 mg per day for 3-12 days (mean: 5-2 days). 2) The clinical effect was excellent in 6, good in 9, poor in 7, which is classified as excellent in 1 with simple acute cystitis, good in 5 and poor in 5 out of 11 with complicated chronic cystitis, and excellent in 4, good in 4 and poor in 2 out of 10 with complicated chronic pyelonephritis. 3) In complicated urinary tract infections, the effective rate was 61.5% (8/13) in GM 80 mg/day dosage group and 75.0% (6/8) in GM 120 mg/day dosage group. 4) No abnormal change was noted in the kidney, liver and auditory function throughout this clinical study. 5) When GM therapy is conducted in the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections, it is considered that more favorable clinical results could be obtained with dosage of GM 120 mg/day or more. However, in this case a caution has to be paid to the kidney and auditory functions.

[Clinical experience with amoxicillin (Pacetocin 'Kyowa') in urology (author's transl)]

Amoxicillin (Pacetocin 'Kyowa') was orally administered in a daily dose of 1 g (potency) to 5 cases with urological infections and 15 cases with postoperative infections. As a result the drug was found remarkably effective in one case, effective in 15 cases and ineffective in 3 cases; in one case, the response to amoxicillin was uninterpretable. No severe side effect was observed during the treatment.