Mastitis pathogens and antibiotic resistance in beef cows in Switzerland

INTRODUCTION

Mastitis in beef cows has not been studied as extensively as mastitis in dairy cows, and data from Switzerland are lacking. Various studies have shown a similar pathogen spectrum as in dairy cows, which could not be confirmed in this study. To gather initial data from Switzerland, milk samples from 297 lactating beef cows from 31 herds from the Engadin Valley in the Canton of Grisons were examined bacteriologically. At least one major or minor mastitis pathogen was recovered from at least one individual-quarter or composite sample from 33 % of all cows. The most common major mastitis pathogens were Staphylococcus aureus (8,4 % of cows), Pasteurella multocida (4,1 %), Streptococcus uberis (2 %) and Streptococcus dysgalactiae (1,7 %). Sixteen percent of the cows had at least one blind quarter, but only 32 % of these had been previously detected by the owners. In the second part of the study, milk samples from beef cows with mastitis were examined bacteriologically; the cows originated from various parts of Switzerland and had been presented for veterinary treatment. Pasteurella multocida (22 %) and Staphylococcus aureus (21 %) were the most common pathogens isolated. Antibiograms using microtitration and disk diffusion testing were generated for the Staphylococcus aureus, Pasteurella multocida and Streptococcus uberis strains from both parts of the study. Fifty-six percent of the Staphylococcus aureus strains were resistant to penicillin G. Our results showed that bacteriological examination of a milk sample aids in the diagnosis and allows specific treatment of mastitis in beef cows; this may be further improved with antibacterial susceptibility testing. Our preliminary data for the resistance patterns of mastitis pathogens in beef cows will facilitate evidence-based treatment strategies.

Longitudinal Nutritional Intakes in Italian Pregnant Women in Comparison with National Nutritional Guidelines

Background: Nutritional quality during pregnancy is crucial for mother and child health and their short/long-term outcomes. The aim of this study is to evaluate the adherence to nutritional recommendations in Italy during the three pregnancy trimesters in Normal Weight (NW) and Over Weight (OW) women. Methods: Data from a multicenter randomized controlled trial included 176 women (NW = 133; OW = 43) with healthy singleton pregnancies enrolled within 13 + 6 weeks of gestation. Dietary intake was assessed every trimester by a Food Frequency Questionnaire. Results: OW and NW had similar gestational weight gain. However, as Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommend lower gestational weight gain (GWG) for OW, they exceeded the suggested range. In both groups, caloric intake during the three trimesters never met recommendations. Protein intake in first and second trimester was higher than recommendations, as was sugars percentage. Dietary fiber intake was lower in OW. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, calcium, iron and folic acid requirements were never satisfied, while sodium intake exceeded recommendations. Conclusions: NW and OW women in Italy do not adhere to nutritional recommendations during pregnancy, with lower caloric intake, protein and sugars excess and inadequacies in micronutrients intake. Pregnant women in Italy should be provided with an adequate counseling and educational intervention as well as supplementation when indicated.

Pathogen dependent effects of high amounts of oxytocin on the bloodmilk barrier integrity during mastitis in dairy cows

INTRODUCTION

The reduction of antibiotic use in food producing animals becomes increasingly important. Therefore, suitable alternatives for mastitis treatment in dairy cows have to be considered. Oxytocin (OT) induces milk ejection and hence supports milk removal from infected mammary quarters. Beyond udder emptying, the injection of very high dosages of OT causes increased somatic cell counts (SCC) in milk and enables the transfer of immunoglobulins (Ig) from blood into milk through a reduced blood-milk barrier integrity. The aim of the present study was to investigate pathogen-specific changes of SCC, the blood derived milk components lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), serum albumin (SA), and IgG in milk of cows suffering from mastitis caused by different pathogens treated with two intravenous injections of high dosages of OT (100 IU). Milk samples from 184 dairy cows from different farms were collected on day 1 (day of clinical examination and mastitis diagnosis) and on days 2, 3, 14, and 28. Bacteriological examination (day 1) identified involved pathogens. Cows were randomly assigned to treatment (OT injections on days 1 and 2) or control group (no OT). Independently of the assigned experimental group, cows received the common therapy protocol of the veterinary practice after sample collection if the general condition was affected. Milk SCC, LDH, SA, and IgG changed specifically depending on involved pathogens. Highest values of all three parameters were measured in mastitis caused by Streptococcus uberis. Changes were less pronounced with other Streptococci spp., Staphylococci spp. or Corynebacterium bovis. Oxytocin treatment did not affect any of the studied parameters independent of the involved pathogen. Only in quarters infected with Staphylococci other than Staphylococcus aureus a decreased SCC and increased IgG concentrations in quarters, where no pathogens were detected, were observed. Thus, high dosage OT administration is obviously not suitable as a stand-alone mastitis treatment in dairy cows.

Placental pathology in COVID-19 affected pregnant women: A prospective case-control study

Introduction

During pregnancy, SARS-CoV-2 infection may cause an abnormal development of the placenta, thus influencing maternal and fetal outcomes. Few studies have reported data on placental morphology and histology in infected pregnant patients, although not compared with carefully matched controls. The aim of this study is to compare placental morphology and histology of pregnant women affected by SARS-CoV-2 to non-infected controls.

Methods

This is a prospective multicenter case-control study on 64 pregnant women affected by SARS-CoV-2 who delivered at term or late-preterm. Data were collected about pregnancy course, maternal and fetal outcomes, placental biometry and macro- and microscopical morphology. 64 not-infected women were identified as controls, matched by age, body mass index and ethnicity.

Results

Cases and controls had similar fetal and maternal outcomes. No significant differences were observed in placental macro- or microscopical morphology between the two groups. In the cases treated with antivirals, chloroquine, LMWH or antibiotics, placentas were heavier but not more efficient than the non-treated, since the fetal/placental weight ratio did not differ. Moreover, delayed villous maturation was more frequent in treated women, although not significantly. The newborns whose mothers received oxygen therapy as treatment had higher levels of umbilical cord pO₂ at birth.

Discussion

In this prospective case-control study, SARS-CoV-2 infection during the third trimester did not influence placental histological pattern. Pharmacological and oxygen therapy administered to women affected by this viral infection could impact maternal and fetal outcomes and be associated to placental histological alterations.

Synaptotagmin 13 is neuroprotective across motor neuron diseases

In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), spinal and lower brainstem motor neurons degenerate, but some motor neuron subtypes are spared, including oculomotor neurons (OMNs). The mechanisms responsible for this selective degeneration are largely unknown, but the molecular signatures of resistant and vulnerable motor neurons are distinct and offer clues to neuronal resilience and susceptibility. Here, we demonstrate that healthy OMNs preferentially express Synaptotagmin 13 (SYT13) compared to spinal motor neurons. In end-stage ALS patients, SYT13 is enriched in both OMNs and the remaining relatively resilient spinal motor neurons compared to controls. Overexpression of SYT13 in ALS and SMA patient motor neurons in vitro improves their survival and increases axon lengths. Gene therapy with Syt13 prolongs the lifespan of ALS mice by 14% and SMA mice by 50% by preserving motor neurons and delaying muscle denervation. SYT13 decreases endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis of motor neurons, both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, SYT13 is a resilience factor that can protect motor neurons and a candidate therapeutic target across motor neuron diseases.

Back to the origins: Human brain organoids to investigate neurodegeneration

Neurodegenerative disorders represent a high burden in terms of individual, social and economical resources. No ultimate therapy has been established so far; human brain morphology and development can not be entirely reproduced by animal models, and genomic, metabolic and biochemical differences might contribute to a limited predictive power for human translation. Thus, the development of human brain organoid models holds a wide potential to investigate the range of physiological and pathological features that characterise the early onset of the degeneration. Moreover, central nervous system development has gained a crucial role in the study of the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Premature alterations during brain maturation have been related to late disease manifestations; genetic mutations responsible for neurodegeneration have been found in genes highly expressed during neural development. Elucidating the mechanisms triggering neuronal susceptibility to degeneration is crucial for pathogenetic studies and therapeutic discoveries. In the present work, we provide an overview on the current applications of human brain organoids towards studies of neurodegenerative diseases, with a survey on the recent discoveries and a closing discussion on the present challenges and future perspectives.

The Sensitivity of Euro-Atlantic Regimes to Model Horizontal Resolution

There is growing evidence that the atmospheric dynamics of the Euro-Atlantic sector during winter is driven in part by the presence of quasi-persistent regimes. However, general circulation models typically struggle to simulate these with, for example, an overly weakly persistent blocking regime. Previous studies have showed that increased horizontal resolution can improve the regime structure of a model but have so far only considered a single model with only one ensemble member at each resolution, leaving open the possibility that this may be either coincidental or model dependent. We show that the improvement in regime structure due to increased resolution is robust across multiple models with multiple ensemble members. However, while the high-resolution models have notably more tightly clustered data, other aspects of the regimes may not necessarily improve and are also subject to a large amount of sampling variability that typically requires at least three ensemble members to surmount.

Neonatal Outcomes in Maternal Depression in Relation to Intrauterine Drug Exposure

Background: SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) are the most useful drugs to treat depression during pregnancy. Intrauterine exposure to SSRIs may increase the risk of growth restriction, preterm birth and neonatal complications. However, advantages in treating depression seem to exceed potential drug side effects in respect un-treated depression. SSRIs undergo extensive hepatic first-pass metabolism with the involvement of several cytochrome P450 (CYPs) enzymes. Genetic polymorphisms may influence the expression and activity of CYPs genes. The first aim of this study was to evaluate neonatal outcomes in depressed mothers exposed to SSRIs during pregnancy. SSRIs pharmacogenetics was also evaluated in a subset of mothers and fetuses. Methods: In this case-control study, cases (n = 42) were Caucasian women with a diagnosis of depression and/or anxiety, treated with SSRIs for the whole pregnancy. Controls (n = 85) were Caucasian women without a psychiatric diagnosis and not exposed to SSRIs during pregnancy. Exclusion criteria for both groups were other psychotropic drugs, anti-epileptics, drug of abuse, alcohol addiction, maternal or fetal infectious diseases, fetal/neonatal chromosomal genetic abnormalities. Maternal and fetal blood samples were obtained at delivery to analyze genotype in 33 cases. Results: The population was homogenous for demographic, anthropometric, socio-economic and obstetric variables except for smoking and mean hemoglobin values before delivery. Obstetric features were comparable. Newborns exposed to SSRIs during fetal life were significantly more likely to be Low Birth Weight (LBW) (birth weight <2,500 g) (p = 0.01), had significantly lower mean Apgar scores at 1' (p = 0.006) and at 5' (p = 0.023) and worse Apgar distribution at 1' (p = 0.017) and at 5' (p = 0.013). Fifty-six percent of newborns presented one or more symptoms consistent with poor neonatal adaptation syndrome (PNAS). Pharmacogenetic analysis at delivery did not show significant differences in the frequencies of obstetric or neonatal complications in relation to polymorphisms. Conclusions: We found that newborns exposed to SSRIs are at increased risk of poor neonatal outcomes in terms of low birth weight, low Apgar scores and, clinically, poor neonatal adaptation syndrome. Preliminary pharmacogenetic analysis showed that the degree of CYPs alterations, that depends on polymorphisms, may influence neonatal outcomes.

Milk somatic cell count, lactate dehydrogenase activity, and immunoglobulin G concentration associated with mastitis caused by different pathogens: A field study

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study is to analyze how somatic cell counts (SCC), immunoglobulin G (IgG), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) interact dependent on the mastitis causing pathogen. Milk samples from 152 quarters were collected on 2 Swiss dairy farms equipped with automatic milking systems. Bacteriological culturing was performed and SCC, LDH activity and IgG concentrations were measured in each sample. Correlations and regressions among SCC, LHD, and IgG were calculated after grouping by the pathogen type (control, S. aureus, C. bovis, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus and S. uberis). All the mastitis causing pathogens were gram-positive bacteria (except for 3 cases with E. coli). In this study, the SCC and LDH were affected by the pathogen group. However, only in the S. uberis group the IgG concentration was higher than in the controls. All studied variables were positively correlated among each other. SCC and LDH were the highest correlated parameters in the control, S. aureus, C. bovis and coagulase- negative Staphylococcus groups. Only in the S. uberis group the correlation between LDH and IgG was higher than the correlation between SCC and LDH. The regression coefficients for SCC and LDH differed between groups whereas regression coefficients for SCC and IgG, and for LDH and IgG were similar in all groups. Because cases with E. coli infection were so rare, we could not include these cases in the statistical evaluation. Based on these few cases E. coli (n=3) seemed to cause a much higher increase of IgG and LDH than the infection with gram-positive bacteria. This study shows that the suitability of LDH as a marker for IgG transfer is dependent on the pathogen. The use of LDH in combination with SCC may be used as a marker to differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, but does not allow differentiating the immune response between different gram-positive bacteria.

[Clinical epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in calves]

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to determine whether there is an association between Cryptosporidium infections in calves and immunological factors, as well as farm-related factors or the application of the anti-cryptosporidiosis drug Halofuginone. From January to June 2010, 63 cow-calf-pairs from 20 different farms near Zürich, Switzerland have been investigated. Each cowcalf- pair was visited three times within the first 6 weeks of life to collect data of the farm and animals, as well as blood, faecal, colostral and milk samples. An ELISA using sporozoite antigen was developed for the specific detection of anti-Cryptosporidium-IgG in blood- and colostral serum. The IgG concentration in the bloodand colostral serum was determined using radial immuno diffusion test (RID). White blood cell isolation and differential blood cell counts and California Mastitis Test were performed. Bacteriological studies on quarter-milk-samples were carried out. Cryptosporidium oocysts were diagnosed with the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining, other protozoa with the SAFC method and Eimeria oocysts and helminth eggs were diagnosed with the combined sedimentation/floatation test. ELISAs were performed for the detection of rota- and coronavirus, E. coli F5 and Cryptosporidium spp. in bovine feces (bio-X Diagnostics®, Belgium). The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was 54.0% and found 7 to 20 days post natum, whereas 47.1% were suffering from diarrhea. The transfer of total IgG with the colostrum and the humoral immunity of the calf could not prevent any infection with Cryptosporidium, but the severity of the diarrhea symptoms decreased with increasing total IgG concentrations. Calves housed in open sheds showed significantly more often diarrhea, i. e. they shed more Cryptosporidium oocysts during the first 4 days and 7 to 20 days post natum, respectively. Halofuginone (Halocur®) is approved for prophylaxis against cryptosporidiosis, but it showed no effect on the excretion of Cryptosporidium oocysts in the present study.

Morpholino-mediated SOD1 reduction ameliorates an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease phenotype

Neurotoxicity due to the accumulation of mutant proteins is thought to drive pathogenesis in neurodegenerative diseases. Mutations in superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) are linked to familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (fALS); these mutations result in progressive motor neuron death through one or more acquired toxicities. Interestingly, SOD1 is not only responsible for fALS but may also play a significant role in sporadic ALS; therefore, SOD1 represents a promising therapeutic target. Here, we report slowed disease progression, improved neuromuscular function, and increased survival in an in vivo ALS model following therapeutic delivery of morpholino oligonucleotides (MOs) designed to reduce the synthesis of human SOD1. Neuropathological analysis demonstrated increased motor neuron and axon numbers and a remarkable reduction in astrogliosis and microgliosis. To test this strategy in a human model, we treated human fALS induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived motor neurons with MOs; these cells exhibited increased survival and reduced expression of apoptotic markers. Our data demonstrated the efficacy of MO-mediated therapy in mouse and human ALS models, setting the stage for human clinical trials.

Motor neurons with differential vulnerability to degeneration show distinct protein signatures in health and ALS

The lethal disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by the loss of somatic motor neurons. However, not all motor neurons are equally vulnerable to disease; certain groups are spared, including those in the oculomotor nucleus controlling eye movement. The reasons for this differential vulnerability remain unknown. Here we have identified a protein signature for resistant oculomotor motor neurons and vulnerable hypoglossal and spinal motor neurons in mouse and man and in health and ALS with the aim of understanding motor neuron resistance. Several proteins with implications for motor neuron resistance, including GABAA receptor α1, guanylate cyclase soluble subunit alpha-3 and parvalbumin were persistently expressed in oculomotor neurons in man and mouse. Vulnerable motor neurons displayed higher protein levels of dynein, peripherin and GABAA receptor α2, which play roles in retrograde transport and excitability, respectively. These were dynamically regulated during disease and thus could place motor neurons at an increased risk. From our analysis is it evident that oculomotor motor neurons have a distinct protein signature compared to vulnerable motor neurons in brain stem and spinal cord, which could in part explain their resistance to degeneration in ALS. Our comparison of human and mouse shows the relative conservation of signals across species and infers that transgenic SOD1G93A mice could be used to predict mechanisms of neuronal vulnerability in man.

Aktuelle Daten zur Antibiotikaresistenz der wichtigsten bovinen Mastitiserreger in der Schweiz

100 strains of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), 100 strains of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), 100 strains of Streptococcus spp. and 100 strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli), isolated from bovine mastitis milk samples between November 2002 and April 2003, were tested for their sensitivity to various antibiotics by means of the agar diffusion method. The antibiotics were chosen on the basis of their licenses for intramammary application in Switzerland (www.vetpharm.unizh.ch). 91% of the S. aureus strains were sensitive to all the antibiotics tested. Only 9% of the strains were resistant to Penicillin G and 7% to Ampicillin. 53% of the CNS strains were sensitive to all the antibiotics tested. 31% exhibited resistance to Penicillin G, 26% to Ampicillin, 16% to Cloxacillin and 14% to Lincomycin. 30% of the Streptococcus spp. strains were sensitive to all the antibiotics tested. 4% were resistant to Penicillin G, 4% to Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, 1% to Cefoperazone, 2% to Cefquinome, 35% to Neomycin, 22% to Gentamicin, 61% to Kanamy-cin and 11% to Lincomycin. 43% of the strains showed multiple resistance. 79% of the E. coli strains were sensitive to all the antibiotics tested. 20% exhibited resistance to Ampicillin, 9% to Neomycin and 10% to Kanamycin. A comparison of the own results with data of other authors in Switzerland shows no important changes in the resistance situation during the last 20 years. With the exception of two strains (Streptococcus spp.), all tested isolates were sensible against Cefquinome.

Comparison of genomic and antimicrobial resistance features of latex agglutination test-positive and latex agglutination test-negative Staphylococcus aureus isolates causing bovine mastitis

The dairy industry suffers massive economic losses due to staphylococcal mastitis in cattle. The Staphaureux latex agglutination test (Oxoid, Basel, Switzerland) was reported to lead to negative results in 54% of bovine Staphylococcus aureus strains, and latex-negative strains are thought to be less virulent than Staphaurex latex-positive strains. However, comparative information on virulence and resistance profiles of these 2 groups of Staph. aureus is scarce. Our objective was to associate the latex agglutination phenotype of Staph. aureus strains isolated from bovine mastitis milk with data on clonal complexes, virulence genes, and antibiotic resistance to (1) determine the virulence profiles of the Staphaureux test positive and Staphaurex test negative groups, and (2) provide data needed to improve treatment of bovine mastitis and to identify potential vaccine targets. Seventy-eight Staph. aureus strains isolated from 78 cows on 57 Swiss farms were characterized. Latex agglutination was tested by Staphaureux kit, and resistance profiles were generated by disk diffusion. A DNA microarray was used to assign clonal complexes (CC) and to determine virulence and resistance gene profiles. By the Staphaureux test, 49% of the isolates were latex-positive and 51% were latex-negative. All latex-negative strains were assigned to CC151, whereas latex-positive strains were assigned to various clonal complexes, including CC97 (n=16), CC8 (n=10), CC479 (n=5), CC20 (n=4), CC7 (n=1), CC9 (n=1), and CC45 (n=1). Although the latex-negative isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested, 24% of latex-positive isolates were classified as intermediate with regard to cefalexin-kanamycin and 13% were resistant to both ampicillin and penicillin. Microarray profiles of latex-negative isolates were highly similar, but differed largely from those of latex-positive isolates. Although the latex-negative group lacked several enterotoxin genes and sak, it exhibited significantly higher prevalence rates of genes encoding enterotoxin C, toxic shock syndrome toxin, and leukocidins (lukM/lukF-P83, lukD). Our findings suggest that latex-negative isolates represent a group of closely related strains with specific resistance and virulence gene patterns.

[Capacity of the oligoanuric period in the prediction of renal sequelae in patients with postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome]

INTRODUCTION

Length of the oligoanuric period is the main predictor of renal sequelae in children with postdiarrehal hemolytic uremic syndrome (D+ HUS). We aimed to determine the capacity of the oligoanuric period in the prediction of renal sequelae in children with D+ HUS.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We reviewed data from all patients with D+ HUS admitted at Hospital Elizalde between 1998-2008, including only those with at least 1 year of follow-up. Renal sequelae were defined by the presence of pathologic albuminuria and/or proteinuria and/or arterial hypertension and/or chronic renal failure; 80 patients were included, belonging to one of two groups (with or without sequelae). Difference in the duration of the oligoanuric period between groups was determined, and the diagnostic capacity of the oligoanuric period to identified renal sequelae was assessed by ROC curve.

RESULTS

32 patients presented sequelae, representing a prevalence of 40%. Oligoanuric period was significantly longer in patients with sequelae [median 7 days (range 0-14) vs median 0 days (range 0-30); p= 0,0003]. Using ROC curve (aucROC= 0.73) we identified an oligoanuric period ≥ 4 days as the best threshold to predict renal sequelae (sensitivity 68.75%, and specificity 70.83%).

CONCLUSIONS

By ROC curve analysis we were unable to identify a cut-off point on the length of the oligoanuric period which predicts renal sequelae with optimum sensitivity and specificity. This observation emphasizes the need of periodic and long-term surveillance of all children who suffered from D+ HUS.

Bacteriological survey of ready-to-eat lettuce, fresh-cut fruit, and sprouts collected from the Swiss market

The consumption of ready-to-eat fresh vegetables has increased significantly in the recent decades. So far, no data are available on the bacteriological burden and the prevalence of foodborne pathogens in ready-to-eat lettuce, fresh-cut fruit, and sprouts on the Swiss market. This study was based on investigations carried out during 2 months of the summer season in 2011. Samples of 142 salads, 64 fresh-cut fruit, and 27 sprouts were included in this study. Escherichia coli, an indicator microorganism for fecal contamination, was only found in 5 lettuce samples, with amounts ranging between 2 and 3 log CFU/g. No Salmonella spp. were detected from any of the 233 samples analyzed in this study, and a low occurrence was found for contamination with L. monocytogenes, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, enteropathogenic E. coli, and Cronobacter. From the results of the present study, we conclude that even in a country where the use of chlorine solutions to sanitize fruits and vegetables in the fresh-cut industry is not allowed, it is possible to produce ready-to-eat lettuce, fresh-cut fruit, and sprouts with high microbiological standards. Strict maintenance of good practices of hygiene at preharvest, harvest, and postharvest levels is of central importance to ensure both public health protection and product quality.

Novel optineurin mutations in patients with familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Optineurin (OPTN), a causative gene of hereditary primary open-angle glaucoma, has been recently associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) with mainly autosomal recessive, but also dominant, traits. To further define the contribution of OPTN gene in ALS, we performed a mutational screening in a large cohort of Italian patients.

METHODS

A group of 274 ALS patients, including 161 familial (FALS) and 113 sporadic (SALS) cases, were screened for OPTN mutations by direct sequencing of its coding sequence. All patients fulfilled the El Escorial criteria for probable or definite ALS and were negative for mutations in SOD1, ANG, TARDBP and FUS/TLS genes.

RESULTS

The genetic analysis revealed six novel variants in both FALS and SALS patients, all occurring in an heterozygous state. We identified three missense (c.844A→C p.T282P, c.941A→T p.Q314L, c.1670A→C p.K557T), one nonsense (c.67G→T p.G23X) and two intronic mutations (c.552+1delG, c.1401+4A→G). The intronic c.552+1delG variant determined a splicing defect as demonstrated by mRNA analysis. All mutations were absent in 280 Italian controls and over 6800 worldwide glaucoma patients and controls screened so far. The clinical phenotype of OPTN-mutated patients was heterogeneous for both age of onset and disease duration but characterised by lower-limb onset and prevalence of upper motor neuron signs.

CONCLUSION

In this cohort, OPTN mutations were present both in FALS (2/161), accounting for 1.2% cases, and in SALS patients (4/113), thereby extending the spectrum of OPTN mutations associated with ALS. The study further supports the possible pathological role of optineurin protein in motor neuron disease.

Growth factors in ischemic stroke

Data from pre-clinical and clinical studies provide evidence that colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and other growth factors (GFs) can improve stroke outcome by reducing stroke damage through their anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects, and by promoting angiogenesis and neurogenesis. This review provides a critical and up-to-date literature review on CSF use in stroke. We searched for experimental and clinical studies on haemopoietic GFs such as granulocyte CSF, erythropoietin, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, stem cell factor (SCF), vascular endothelial GF, stromal cell-derived factor-1α and SCF in ischemic stroke. We also considered studies on insulin-like growth factor-1 and neurotrophins. Despite promising results from animal models, the lack of data in human beings hampers efficacy assessments of GFs on stroke outcome. We provide a comprehensive and critical view of the present knowledge about GFs and stroke, and an overview of ongoing and future prospects.

[The role of bacterial contamination of milking utensils and disinfecting solutions as a possible cause of clinical mastitis in dairy cows]

Various instruments and utensils used during milking as well as teat dip solutions were examined for contamination with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS). The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between contaminated fomites and udder infection in dairy cows. A total of 344 cows from ten dairy farms with the highest rate of clinical mastitis among the farms serviced by the Ambulatory Clinic of the University of Zurich were included in the study. Each farm was visited five times. All lactating cows, with the exception of those undergoing antibiotic treatment, were examined immediately before milking using the California Mastitis Test (CMT). A milk sample was collected from positive quarters. Items used to clean the udder, which included wood wool, paper towels and disinfecting towels as well as the milker's hands and the teat dip cup were swabbed for bacteriological examination. Water samples, samples of teat dip and cleaning solutions were also collected and cultured. Our results demonstrate that cleaning and disinfecting solutions have the potential to transmit udder pathogens and cause clinical mastitis. The most common CNS isolated from quarter samples were S. saprophyticus, S. sciuri and S. chromogenes, and the most common CNS isolated from utensils, cleaning and disinfecting solutions were S. fleuretii, S. vitulus, S. equorum, S. sciuri, S. haemolyticus, S. succinus and S. saprophyticus.

Human motor neuron generation from embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells

Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are a group of neurological disorders that selectively affect motor neurons. There are currently no cures or efficacious treatments for these diseases. In recent years, significant developments in stem cell research have been applied to MNDs, particularly regarding neuroprotection and cell replacement. However, a consistent source of motor neurons for cell replacement is required. Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) could provide an inexhaustible supply of differentiated cell types, including motor neurons that could be used for MND therapies. Recently, it has been demonstrated that induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells may serve as an alternative source of motor neurons, since they share ES characteristics, self-renewal, and the potential to differentiate into any somatic cell type. In this review, we discuss several reproducible methods by which hESCs or iPS cells are efficiently isolated and differentiated into functional motor neurons, and possible clinical applications.

Characteristics of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolated from Swiss raw milk cheese within a 3-year monitoring program

Food is an important vehicle for transmission of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). To assess the potential public health impact of STEC in Swiss raw milk cheese produced from cow's, goat's, and ewe's milk, 1,422 samples from semihard or hard cheese and 80 samples from soft cheese were examined for STEC, and isolated strains were further characterized. By PCR, STEC was detected after enrichment in 5.7% of the 1,502 raw milk cheese samples collected at the producer level. STEC-positive samples comprised 76 semihard, 8 soft, and 1 hard cheese. By colony hybridization, 29 STEC strains were isolated from 24 semihard and 5 soft cheeses. Thirteen of the 24 strains typeable with O antisera belonged to the serogroups O2, O22, and O91. More than half (58.6%) of the 29 strains belonged to O:H serotypes previously isolated from humans, and STEC O22:H8, O91:H10, O91:H21, and O174:H21 have also been identified as agents of hemolytic uremic syndrome. Typing of Shiga toxin genes showed that stx(1) was only found in 2 strains, whereas 27 strains carried genes encoding for the Stx(2) group, mainly stx(2) and stx(2vh-a/b). Production of Stx(2) and Stx(2vh-a/b) subtypes might be an indicator for a severe outcome in patients. Nine strains harbored hlyA (enterohemorrhagic E. coli hemolysin), whereas none tested positive for eae (intimin). Consequently, semihard and hard raw milk cheese may be a potential source of STEC, and a notable proportion of the isolated non-O157 STEC strains belonged to serotypes or harbored Shiga toxin gene variants associated with human infections.

Mutated mitofusin 2 presents with intrafamilial variability and brain mitochondrial dysfunction

BACKGROUND

The axonal forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT2) disease are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of disorders. Mitofusin 2 gene (MFN2) mutations are the most common cause of CMT2. Complex phenotypes have been described in association with MFN2 gene mutations, including CMT2 with pyramidal features (hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy [HSMN V]) and CMT2 with optic atrophy (HMSN VI).

OBJECTIVE

To report on the clinical, neurophysiologic, and neuropathologic features of an Italian family with a novel MFN2 gene mutation and investigate brain functional parameters using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS).

METHODS

Three family members, a father and his two sons, were affected by peripheral neuropathy, cognitive impairment, and poor nocturnal vision (also optic neuropathy in one case). A member of this family also showed spastic paraparesis. The MFN2 gene sequence was analyzed. A sural nerve biopsy as well as brain (1)H-MRS and (31)P-MRS were evaluated in two patients.

RESULTS

Affected family members carried a novel MFN2 missense mutation, namely R104W, located within the critical GTPase domain of the protein which affects a highly conserved amino acid position. Sural nerve biopsies showed a normal mitochondrial network, particularly at the nodes of Ranvier, upon electron microscopy examination. A significant defect of high energy phosphates (HEPs) in the visual cortex was observed at rest by (31)P-MRS in the adult proband, while his son showed a defective recovery of HEPs after stimulation of the visual cortex.

CONCLUSION

Cognitive impairment may be another feature of the MFN2-related phenotype. The widespread peripheral and CNS involvement, as well as the neurosensorial defects, underline the similarities among MFN2-related and primary mitochondrial disorders.

Colocalization of ribonuclear inclusions with muscle blind like-proteins in a family with myotonic dystrophy type 2 associated with a short CCTG expansion

Myotonic dystrophy type 2 (DM2) is an autosomal dominant multisystemic disorder caused by a CCTG repeat expansion in intron 1 of the zinc finger protein 9 (ZNF9) gene. We present a three first-degree relative Italian family (proband, his mother and his sister) with a mild DM2 phenotype associated with a short (CCTG)(100) expansion as far as regards the proband and his mother, while his sister shows larger expansion correlated to a more severe phenotype. FISH analysis with (CAGG)(5) probe demonstrated that nuclear foci of mutant RNA were present in the proband muscle and co-localized with muscleblind-like proteins, determining their sequestration in the nucleus. This is one of the smallest expansion reported and the shortest with the evidence of nuclear foci. These data contribute to the clinical and molecular correlation of ZNF9 gene short expansion.

Prevalence and characteristics of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in Swiss raw milk cheeses collected at producer level

The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence, serotypes, and virulence genes of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) isolated from raw milk cheese samples collected at the producer level with the purpose of determining whether raw milk cheeses in Switzerland represent a potential source of STEC pathogenic for humans. Raw milk cheese samples (soft cheese, n = 52; semihard and hard cheese, n = 744; all produced from Swiss cows', goats', and sheep's milk) collected at the producer level throughout Switzerland within the national sampling plan during the period of March 2006 to December 2007 were analyzed. Of the 432 cheese samples obtained in the year 2006 and the 364 samples obtained in the year 2007, 16 (3.7%) and 23 (6.3%), respectively, were found to be stx positive. By colony dot-blot hybridization, non-O157 STEC strains were isolated from 16 samples. Of the 16 strains, 11 were typed into 7 E. coli O groups (O2, O15, O22, O91, O109, O113, O174), whereas 5 strains were nontypeable (ONT). Among the 16 STEC strains analyzed, stx(1) and stx(2) variants were detected in 1 and 15 strains, respectively. Out of the 15 strains with genes encoding for the Stx2 group, 4 strains were positive for stx(2), 6 strains for stx(2d2), 2 strains for stx(2-O118), 1 strain for stx(2-06), 1 strain for stx(2g), 1 strain for stx(2) and stx(2d2), and 1 strain for stx(2) and stx(2g). Furthermore, 3 STEC strains harbored E-hlyA as a further putative virulence factor. None of the strains tested positive for eae (intimin). Results obtained in this work reinforce the suggestion that semihard raw milk cheese may be a potential vehicle for transmission of pathogenic STEC to humans.

Clinical features and new molecular findings in Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II) deficiency

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT II) deficiency is the most common inherited disorder of lipid metabolism characterized in its adult form by attacks of myalgia and myoglobinuria. We analyzed a cohort of 22 CPT II-deficient patients (representing 20 independent probands) to correlate clinical presentation and molecular data. The common p.Ser113Leu mutation was detected with an allelic frequency of 67.5% (27/40), in association with mild adult-onset phenotype. In addition to the p.Ser113Leu mutation, other 10 disease-causing mutations were identified, 5 of which were novel. They are a micro-insertion within exon 5, three aminoacid substitutions within the coding region, namely p.Arg151Trp, p.Asp576Gly, p.Arg247Trp and a truncating stop codon mutation (p.Arg554Ter). Our data expand the spectrum of CPT II mutations and help to evaluate possible correlations between genotypes and phenotypes.

Clinical findings in 56 cows with toxic mastitis

The clinical, haematological, biochemical and bacteriological findings in 56 cows with toxic mastitis are described. In addition to acute mastitis, the most frequent clinical findings were tachycardia in 40 of the cows, anorexia or reduced appetite in 50, reduced ruminal and intestinal motility in 52 and no ruminal and intestinal motility in 39. The most important haematological and biochemical findings were a high haematocrit in 26 of the cows, leucopenia in 23 and a high concentration of urea in 31. In 27 of the cows the secretion of the affected mammary gland did not resemble milk. The most commonly isolated bacteria were Escherichia coli from 26 of the cows and Staphylococcus aureus from 11. Seven of the cows were investigated by an exploratory laparotomy because the principal sign was intestinal in origin, but no abnormalities were found. Seventeen of the cows were euthanased immediately after the diagnostic work, and 14 during the course of their treatment.

Coexistence of CMT-2D and distal SMA-V phenotypes in an Italian family with a GARS gene mutation

An Italian multigenerational family with four members affected by an axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2D (CMT-2D) or distal spinal muscular atrophy (dSMA) phenotype with upper limb predominance, variable age at onset, degree of disability, and autosomal dominant inheritance is reported. A novel heterozygous missense GARS gene mutation (D500N) was identified.

Nuclear reprogramming and adult stem cell potential

Cell-based therapy may represent a new strategy to treat a vast array of clinical disorders including neurodegenerative diseases. Recent observations indicate that adult somatic stem cells have the capacity to contribute to the regeneration of different tissues, suggesting that differentiative restrictions are not completely irreversible and can be reprogrammed. Cell fusion might account for some changed phenotype of adult cells but it seems to be biologically irrelevant for its extreme rarity. Other experimental evidences are compatible with the hypothesis of wide multipotency of well-defined stem cell populations, but also with transdifferentiation and/or dedifferentiation. Further studies on nuclear reprogramming mechanisms are necessary to fulfil the promise for developing autologous cellular therapies.

Determination of urinary bicarbonate with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Comparison using two different methods

The determination of urinary bicarbonate with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation was compared using two methods: (1) correcting the pK in every urine sample according to ionic strength and using the solubility constant of CO2 in urine (alpha=0.0309) and (2) using a fixed pK value (6.1) and a CO2 solubility constant of 0.0301, which we use to calculate blood bicarbonate. Nine patients were studied and 29 determinations were performed. A high correlation was found between the methods (r=0.99). Bicarbonate calculated with corrected pK was 24.3+/-6.6 mEq/l (95% confidence interval 11.4-37.2) and bicarbonate calculated with pK fixed at 6.1 was 25.6+/-6.6 mEq/l (95% confidence interval 12.7-38.5). For each urine sample, the delta bicarbonate was calculated as the difference between the bicarbonate obtained with pK at 6.1 minus that obtained with the corrected pK (mean 1.25, standard error 0.83, P=0.15). This indicates that the difference between the methods was not significant. No difference was found whether pK was corrected or fixed (6.1). Therefore, our results suggest that it is valid to take the value shown by the equipment for blood gas determination as the urinary bicarbonate value. This would allow the rapid and accurate determination of urinary bicarbonate in patients with hyperchloremic acidosis, especially those with renal tubular acidosis.