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Maréchal V, Boni M, Laroche-Joubert D, Rohr O, Wallet C, Boudaud N, Raffestin S, Peyrefitte C, Bertrand I, Gantzer C, Maday Y, Moulin L. [Wastewater-based epidemiology: is the devil in the details?]. Virologie (Montrouge) 2024; 28:vir.2024.1040. [PMID: 38607294 DOI: 10.1684/vir.2024.1040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Maréchal
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche S-Antoine, Paris, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Mickaël Boni
- Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Brétigny-sur-Orge, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | | | - Olivier Rohr
- Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002 CNRS, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Clémentine Wallet
- Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002 CNRS, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Nicolas Boudaud
- Actalia, F-50000 Saint-Lo, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Stéphanie Raffestin
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, 97300 Cayenne, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Christophe Peyrefitte
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, 97300 Cayenne, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, F-54000, Nancy, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, F-54000, Nancy, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Yvon Maday
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Université de Paris, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions (LJLL) et Institut universitaire de France, Paris, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Laurent Moulin
- Eau de Paris, R&D Laboratory, DRDQE Ivry-sur-Seine, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
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Maréchal V, Boni M, Laroche-Joubert D, Rohr O, Wallet C, Boudaud N, Raffestin S, Peyrefitte C, Bertrand I, Gantzer C, Maday Y, Moulin L. [Épidémiologie des eaux usées : le diable se cache-t-il dans les détails ?]. Virologie (Montrouge) 2024; 28:vir.2024.1041. [PMID: 38607307 DOI: 10.1684/vir.2024.1041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Maréchal
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Paris, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Mickaël Boni
- Institut de recherche biomédicale des armées, Brétigny-sur-Orge, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | | | - Olivier Rohr
- Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002 CNRS, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Clémentine Wallet
- Université de Strasbourg, UPR 9002 CNRS, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Nicolas Boudaud
- Actalia, F-50000 Saint-Lo, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Stéphanie Raffestin
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, 97300 Cayenne, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Christophe Peyrefitte
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, 97300 Cayenne, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, F-54000, Nancy, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, F-54000, Nancy, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Yvon Maday
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Université de Paris, Laboratoire Jacques-Louis Lions (LJLL) et Institut universitaire de France, Paris, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
| | - Laurent Moulin
- Eau de Paris, R&D Laboratory, DRDQE Ivry-sur-Seine, France, Groupement d'intérêt scientifique Obépine, https://www.reseau-obepine.fr
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El Soufi G, Di Jorio L, Gerber Z, Cluzel N, Van Assche J, Delafoy D, Olaso R, Daviaud C, Loustau T, Schwartz C, Trebouet D, Hernalsteens O, Marechal V, Raffestin S, Rousset D, Van Lint C, Deleuze JF, Boni M, Rohr O, Villain-Gambier M, Wallet C. Highly efficient and sensitive membrane-based concentration process allows quantification, surveillance, and sequencing of viruses in large volumes of wastewater. Water Res 2024; 249:120959. [PMID: 38070350 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology is experiencing exponential development. Despite undeniable advantages compared to patient-centered approaches (cost, anonymity, survey of large populations without bias, detection of asymptomatic infected peoples…), major technical limitations persist. Among them is the low sensitivity of the current methods used for quantifying and sequencing viral genomes from wastewater. In situations of low viral circulation, during initial stages of viral emergences, or in areas experiencing heavy rains, the extremely low concentrations of viruses in wastewater may fall below the limit of detection of the current methods. The availability during crisis and the cost of the commercial kits, as well as the requirement of expensive materials such as high-speed centrifuge, can also present major blocks to the development of wastewater-based epidemiological survey, specifically in low-income countries. Thereby, highly sensitive, low cost and standardized methods are still needed, to increase the predictability of the viral emergences, to survey low-circulating viruses and to make the results from different labs comparable. Here, we outline and characterize new protocols for concentrating and quantifying SARS-CoV-2 from large volumes (500 mL-1 L) of untreated wastewater. In addition, we report that the methods are applicable for monitoring and sequencing. Our nucleic acid extraction technique (the routine C: 5 mL method) does not require sophisticated equipment such as automatons and is not reliant on commercial kits, making it readily available to a broader range of laboratories for routine epidemiological survey. Furthermore, we demonstrate the efficiency, the repeatability, and the high sensitivity of a new membrane-based concentration method (MBC: 500 mL method) for enveloped (SARS-CoV-2) and non-enveloped (F-specific RNA phages of genogroup II / FRNAPH GGII) viruses. We show that the MBC method allows the quantification and the monitoring of viruses in wastewater with a significantly improved sensitivity compared to the routine C method. In contexts of low viral circulation, we report quantifications of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater at concentrations as low as 40 genome copies per liter. In highly diluted samples collected in wastewater treatment plants of French Guiana, we confirmed the accuracy of the MBC method compared to the estimations done with the routine C method. Finally, we demonstrate that both the routine C method processing 5 mL and the MBC method processing 500 mL of untreated wastewater are both compatible with SARS-CoV-2 sequencing. We show that the quality of the sequence is correlated with the concentration of the extracted viral genome. Of note, the quality of the sequences obtained with some MBC processed wastewater was improved by dilutions or enzyme substitutions suggesting the presence of specific enzyme inhibitors in some wastewater. To the best of our knowledge, our MBC method is one of the first efficient, sensitive, and repeatable method characterized for SARS-CoV-2 quantification and sequencing from large volumes of wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- G El Soufi
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France; CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - L Di Jorio
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France
| | - Z Gerber
- CEA, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry 91057, France
| | - N Cluzel
- Maison des Modélisations Ingénieries et Technologies (SUMMIT), Sorbonne Université, Paris 75005, France
| | - J Van Assche
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France
| | - D Delafoy
- CEA, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry 91057, France
| | - R Olaso
- CEA, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry 91057, France
| | - C Daviaud
- CEA, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry 91057, France
| | - T Loustau
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France
| | - C Schwartz
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France
| | - D Trebouet
- CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - O Hernalsteens
- Department of Molecular Biology (DBM), Service of Molecular Virology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Gosselies 6041, Belgium
| | - V Marechal
- INSERM, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Sorbonne Université, Paris 75012, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France
| | - S Raffestin
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, French Guiana, Cayenne 97300, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France
| | - D Rousset
- Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, French Guiana, Cayenne 97300, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France
| | - C Van Lint
- Department of Molecular Biology (DBM), Service of Molecular Virology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Gosselies 6041, Belgium
| | - J F Deleuze
- CEA, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, Université Paris-Saclay, Evry 91057, France
| | - M Boni
- French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, 91220 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France
| | - O Rohr
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France.
| | - M Villain-Gambier
- CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg F-67000, France
| | - C Wallet
- DHPI UR 7292, IUT Louis Pasteur, Université de Strasbourg, Schiltigheim, France; OBEPINE Consortium, Paris, France
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Hery L, Guidez A, Durand AA, Delannay C, Normandeau-Guimond J, Reynaud Y, Issaly J, Goindin D, Legrave G, Gustave J, Raffestin S, Breurec S, Constant P, Dusfour I, Guertin C, Vega-Rúa A. Natural Variation in Physicochemical Profiles and Bacterial Communities Associated with Aedes aegypti Breeding Sites and Larvae on Guadeloupe and French Guiana. Microb Ecol 2021; 81:93-109. [PMID: 32621210 PMCID: PMC7794107 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-020-01544-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti develop in aquatic habitats in which mosquito larvae are exposed to physicochemical elements and microorganisms that may influence their life cycle and their ability to transmit arboviruses. Little is known about the natural bacterial communities associated with A. aegypti or their relation to the biotic and abiotic characteristics of their aquatic habitats. We characterized the physicochemical properties and bacterial microbiota of A. aegypti breeding sites and larvae on Guadeloupe and in French Guiana. In addition, we explored whether geographic location, the type of breeding site and physicochemical parameters influenced the microbiota associated with this mosquito species. We used large-scale 16S rRNA gene sequencing of 160 breeding sites and 147 pools of A. aegypti larvae and recorded 12 physicochemical parameters at the sampled breeding sites. Ordination plots and multiple linear regression were used to assess the influence of environmental factors on the bacterial microbiota of water and larvae. We found territory-specific differences in physicochemical properties (dissolved oxygen, conductivity) and the composition of bacterial communities in A. aegypti breeding sites that influenced the relative abundance of several bacteria genera (e.g., Methylobacterium, Roseoccocus) on the corresponding larvae. A significant fraction of the bacterial communities identified on larvae, dominated by Herbiconiux and Microvirga genera, were consistently enriched in mosquitoes regardless the location. In conclusion, territory-specific differences observed in the biotic and abiotic properties of A. aegypti breeding sites raise concern about the impact of these changes on pathogen transmission by different A. aegypti populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyza Hery
- Laboratory of Vector Control Research, Transmission Reservoir and Pathogens Diversity Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
| | - Amandine Guidez
- Vector Control and Adaptation Unit, Cayenne, Institut Pasteur of French Guiana, Vectopôle Amazonien Emile Abonnenc, Cayenne, French Guiana France
| | | | - Christelle Delannay
- Laboratory of Vector Control Research, Transmission Reservoir and Pathogens Diversity Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
| | | | - Yann Reynaud
- Laboratory of Vector Control Research, Transmission Reservoir and Pathogens Diversity Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
| | - Jean Issaly
- Vector Control and Adaptation Unit, Cayenne, Institut Pasteur of French Guiana, Vectopôle Amazonien Emile Abonnenc, Cayenne, French Guiana France
| | - Daniella Goindin
- Laboratory of Vector Control Research, Transmission Reservoir and Pathogens Diversity Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
| | - Grégory Legrave
- Laboratory of Environment and Food Hygiene, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
| | - Joel Gustave
- Regional Health Agency of Guadeloupe, Gourbeyre, Guadeloupe France
| | - Stéphanie Raffestin
- Laboratory of Environment and Hygiene, Institut Pasteur of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana France
| | - Sebastien Breurec
- Transmission, Reservoir and Diversity of Pathogens Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
- Hyacinthe Bastaraud Faculty of Medicine, University of Antilles, Pointe-à-Pitre, France
- INSERM Centre for Clinical Investigation 1424, Pointe-à-Pitre, Les Abymes France
| | - Philippe Constant
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Québec Canada
| | - Isabelle Dusfour
- Vector Control and Adaptation Unit, Cayenne, Institut Pasteur of French Guiana, Vectopôle Amazonien Emile Abonnenc, Cayenne, French Guiana France
| | - Claude Guertin
- INRS-Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Laval, Québec Canada
| | - Anubis Vega-Rúa
- Laboratory of Vector Control Research, Transmission Reservoir and Pathogens Diversity Unit, Institut Pasteur of Guadeloupe, Morne Jolivière, Guadeloupe France
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Galloux M, Araye-Guet A, Vitrac H, Montagner C, Raffestin S, Popoff M, Chenal A, Forge V, Gillet D. Function of the translocation domain belt. Toxicon 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Connan C, Brueggemann H, Mazuet C, Raffestin S, Cayet N, Popoff MR. Two-component systems are involved in the regulation of botulinum neurotoxin synthesis in Clostridium botulinum type A strain Hall. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41848. [PMID: 22848632 PMCID: PMC3406050 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum synthesizes a potent neurotoxin (BoNT) which associates with non-toxic proteins (ANTPs) to form complexes of various sizes. The bont and antp genes are clustered in two operons. In C. botulinum type A, bont/A and antp genes are expressed during the end of the exponential growth phase and the beginning of the stationary phase under the control of an alternative sigma factor encoded by botR/A, which is located between the two operons. In the genome of C. botulinum type A strain Hall, 30 gene pairs predicted to encode two-component systems (TCSs) and 9 orphan regulatory genes have been identified. Therefore, 34 Hall isogenic antisense strains on predicted regulatory genes (29 TCSs and 5 orphan regulatory genes) have been obtained by a mRNA antisense procedure. Two TCS isogenic antisense strains showed more rapid growth kinetics and reduced BoNT/A production than the control strain, as well as increased bacterial lysis and impairment of the bacterial cell wall structure. Three other TCS isogenic antisense strains induced a low level of BoNT/A and ANTP production. Interestingly, reduced expression of bont/A and antp genes was shown to be independent of botR/A. These results indicate that BoNT/A synthesis is under the control of a complex network of regulation including directly at least three TCSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Connan
- Institut Pasteur, Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | - Nadège Cayet
- Institut Pasteur, Plateforme de Microscopie Ultrastructurale, Paris, France
| | - Michel R. Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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Galloux M, Vitrac H, Montagner C, Raffestin S, Popoff MR, Chenal A, Forge V, Gillet D. Membrane Interaction of botulinum neurotoxin A translocation (T) domain. The belt region is a regulatory loop for membrane interaction. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:27668-27676. [PMID: 18693250 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802557200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The translocation of the catalytic domain through the membrane of the endosome to the cell cytoplasm is a key step of intoxication by botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). This step is mediated by the translocation (T) domain upon endosome acidification, although the mechanism of interaction of the T domain with the membrane is still poorly understood. Using physicochemical approaches and spectroscopic methods, we studied the interaction of the BoNT/A T domain with the membrane as a function of pH. We found that the interaction with membranes does not involve major secondary or tertiary structural changes, as reported for other toxins like diphtheria toxin. The T domain becomes insoluble around its pI value and then penetrates into the membrane. At that stage, the T domain becomes able to permeabilize lipid vesicles. This occurs for pH values lower than 5.5, in agreement with the pH encountered by the toxin within endosomes. Electrostatic interactions are also important for the process. The role of the so-called belt region was investigated with four variant proteins presenting different lengths of the N-extremity of the T domain. We observed that this part of the T domain, which contains numerous negatively charged residues, limits the protein-membrane interaction. Indeed, interaction with the membrane of the protein deleted of this extremity takes place for higher pH values than for the entire T domain. Overall, the data suggest that acidification eliminates repulsive electrostatic interactions between the T domain and the membrane, allowing its penetration into the membrane without triggering detectable structural changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Galloux
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (iBiTecS), Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Heidi Vitrac
- Institut de Recherche en Technologies et Sciences pour le Vivant (IRTSV), Laboratoire de Chimie Biologie des Métaux (LCBM), UMR CEA-CNRS-UJF 5249, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Caroline Montagner
- Institut de Recherche en Technologies et Sciences pour le Vivant (IRTSV), Laboratoire de Chimie Biologie des Métaux (LCBM), UMR CEA-CNRS-UJF 5249, F-38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Stéphanie Raffestin
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (iBiTecS), Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Unité des Bactéries Anaérobies et Toxines, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Alexandre Chenal
- Unité de Biochimie des Interactions Moléculaires, URA CNRS 2185, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, 25-28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Vincent Forge
- Institut de Recherche en Technologies et Sciences pour le Vivant (IRTSV), Laboratoire de Chimie Biologie des Métaux (LCBM), UMR CEA-CNRS-UJF 5249, F-38054 Grenoble, France.
| | - Daniel Gillet
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (iBiTecS), Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), F-91191 Gif sur Yvette, France.
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Perier A, Chassaing A, Raffestin S, Pichard S, Masella M, Ménez A, Forge V, Chenal A, Gillet D. Concerted Protonation of Key Histidines Triggers Membrane Interaction of the Diphtheria Toxin T Domain. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:24239-45. [PMID: 17584737 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m703392200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The translocation domain (T domain) of the diphtheria toxin contributes to the transfer of the catalytic domain from the cell endosome to the cytosol, where it blocks protein synthesis. Translocation is initiated when endosome acidification induces the interaction of the T domain with the membrane of the compartment. We found that the protonation of histidine side chains triggers the conformational changes required for membrane interaction. All histidines are involved in a concerted manner, but none is indispensable. However, the preponderance of each histidine varies according to the transition observed. The pair His(223)-His(257) and His(251) are the most sensitive triggers for the formation of the molten globule state in solution, whereas His(322)-His(323) and His(251) are the most sensitive triggers for membrane binding. Interestingly, the histidines are located at key positions throughout the structure of the protein, in hinges and at the interface between each of the three layers of helices forming the domain. Their protonation induces local destabilizations, disrupting the tertiary structure and favoring membrane interaction. We propose that the selection of histidine residues as triggers of membrane interaction enables the T domain to initiate translocation at the rather mild pH found in the endosome, contributing to toxin efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Perier
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Gif-sur-Yvette F-91191, France
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Raffestin S, Marvaud JC, Cerrato R, Dupuy B, Popoff MR. Organization and regulation of the neurotoxin genes in Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani. Anaerobe 2007; 10:93-100. [PMID: 16701505 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2004.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2003] [Accepted: 01/14/2004] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins are structurally and functionally related 150 kDa proteins that are potent inhibitors of neuroexocytosis. Botulinum neurotoxin associates with non-toxic proteins to form complexes of various sizes. The botulinum neurotoxin and non-toxic protein genes are clustered in a DNA segment called the botulinum locus. This locus is probably located on a mobile or degenerate mobile element, which accounts for the various genomic localizations (chromosome, plasmid, phage) in different Clostridium botulinum types. The botulinum neurotoxin and non-toxic protein genes are organized in two polycistronic operons (ntnh-bont and ha operons) transcribed in opposite orientations. The gene that separates the two operons of the botulinum locus in C. botulinum A encodes a 21 kDa protein BotR/A, which is a positive regulator of the expression of the botulinum locus genes. Similarly, in Clostridium tetani, the gene located immediately upstream of the tetanus toxin gene, encodes a positive regulatory protein, TetR. BotR and TetR are possibly alternative sigma factors related to TxeR and UviA, which regulate C. difficile toxin and C. perfringens bacteriocin production, respectively. TxeR and UviA define a new sub-group of the sigma(70) family of RNA polymerase initiation factors. In addition, the C. botulinum genome contains predicted two-component system genes, some of which are possibly involved in regulation of toxinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Raffestin
- Unité des Bactéries Anaérobies et Toxines, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr Roux, Paris 75724, Cedex 15, France
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Dupuy B, Raffestin S, Matamouros S, Mani N, Popoff MR, Sonenshein AL. Regulation of toxin and bacteriocin gene expression in Clostridium by interchangeable RNA polymerase sigma factors. Mol Microbiol 2006; 60:1044-57. [PMID: 16677313 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05159.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The production of major extracellular toxins by pathogenic strains of Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tetani and Clostridium difficile, and a bacteriocin by Clostridium perfringens is dependent on a related group of RNA polymerase sigma-factors. These sigma-factors (BotR, TetR, TcdR and UviA) were shown to be sufficiently similar that they could substitute for one another in in vitro DNA binding and run-off transcription experiments. In cells, however, the sigma-factors fell into two subclasses. BotR and TetR were able to direct transcription of their target genes in a fully reciprocal manner. Similarly, UviA and TcdR were fully interchangeable. Neither BotR nor TetR could substitute for UviA or TcdR, however, and neither UviA nor TcdR could direct transcription of the natural targets of BotR or TetR. The extent of functional interchangeability of the sigma-factors was attributed to the strong conservation of their subregion 4.2 sequences and the conserved -35 sequences of their target promoters, while restrictions on interchangeability were attributed to variations in their subregion 2.4 sequences and the target site -10 sequences. The four sigma-factors have been assigned to group 5 of the sigma(70) family and seem to have arisen from a common ancestral protein that may have co-evolved with the genes whose transcription they direct. A fifth Clostridiumsigma-factor, sigma(Y) of Clostridium acetobutylicum, resembles the TcdR family, but was not functionally interchangeable with members of this family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Dupuy
- Unité de Génétique Moléculaire Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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Couesnon A, Raffestin S, Popoff MR. Expression of botulinum neurotoxins A and E, and associated non-toxin genes, during the transition phase and stability at high temperature: analysis by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. Microbiology (Reading) 2006; 152:759-770. [PMID: 16514155 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.28561-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Production of botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) and associated non-toxic proteins (ANTPs), which include a non-toxic non-haemagglutinin (NTNH/A) as well as haemagglutinins (HAs), was found previously to be dependent upon an RNA polymerase alternative sigma factor (BotR/A). Expression of the botR/A, bont/A and antp genes, monitored by reverse transcription and real-time PCR analysis, occurred concomitantly at the transition between the exponential and stationary growth phases of Clostridium botulinum A. The botR/A expression level was about 100-fold less than those of the bont/A and antp genes. Therefore, BotR/A is an alternative sigma factor controlling the botulinum A locus genes during the transition phase. The highest toxin concentration was released into the culture supernatant 12 h after maximum expression of the botR/A, bont/A and antp genes, without any apparent bacterial lysis. Toxin levels were then stable over 5 days in cultures at 37 degrees C, whereas a dramatic decrease in lethal activity was observed between 24 and 48 h in cultures at 44 degrees C. High temperature did inhibit transcription, since expression levels of the botR/A, bont/A and antp genes were similar in cultures at 37 and 44 degrees C. However, incubation at 44 degrees C triggered a calcium-dependent protease that degraded BoNT/A and NTNH/A, but not HAs. In C. botulinum E, which contains no gene related to botR, the bont/E and p47 genes were also expressed during the transition phase, and no protease activation at 44 degrees C was evident.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Couesnon
- Unité des Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Michel R Popoff
- Unité des Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Raffestin S, Dupuy B, Marvaud JC, Popoff MR. BotR/A and TetR are alternative RNA polymerase sigma factors controlling the expression of the neurotoxin and associated protein genes in Clostridium botulinum type A and Clostridium tetani. Mol Microbiol 2004; 55:235-49. [PMID: 15612931 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04377.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium tetani, respectively, produce potent toxins, botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) and tetanus neurotoxin (TeTx), which are responsible for severe diseases, botulism and tetanus. Neurotoxin synthesis is a regulated process in Clostridium. The genes botR/A in C. botulinum A and tetR in C. tetani positively regulate expression of BoNT/A and associated non-toxic proteins (ANTPs), as well as TeTx respectively. The botR/A gene lies in close vicinity of the two operons which contain bont/A and antps genes in C. botulinum A, and tetR immediately precedes the tetX gene in C. tetani. We show that BotR/A and TetR function as specific alternative sigma factors rather than positive regulators based on the following results: (i) BotR/A and TetR associated with target DNAs only in the presence of the RNA polymerase core enzyme (Core), (ii) BotR/A and TetR directly bound with the core enzyme, (iii) BotR/A-Core recognized -35 and -10 regions of ntnh-bont/A promoter and (iv) BotR/A and TetR triggered in vitro transcription from the target promoters. In C. botulinum A, bont/A and antps genes are transcribed as bi- and tricistronic operons controlled by BotR/A. BotR/A and TetR are seemingly related to a new subgroup of the sigma70 family that includes TcdR and UviA, which, respectively, regulate production of toxins A and B in C. difficile and bacteriocin in C. perfringens. Sequences of -35 region are highly conserved in the promoter of target toxin genes in C. botulinum, C. tetani, C. difficile and C. perfringens. Overall, a common regulation mechanism probably controls toxin gene expression in these four toxigenic clostridial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Raffestin
- Institut Pasteur, Unité des Bactéries Anaérobies et Toxines, 25-28 rue du Dr Roux 75724, Paris cedex 15, France
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Brüggemann H, Bauer R, Raffestin S, Gottschalk G. Characterization of a heme oxygenase of Clostridium tetani and its possible role in oxygen tolerance. Arch Microbiol 2004; 182:259-63. [PMID: 15340779 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-004-0721-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2004] [Revised: 07/19/2004] [Accepted: 07/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In order to colonize mammalian wounds, the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium tetani must presumably cope with temporary oxic conditions. Therefore, the recently decoded genome sequence was searched for genes which could confer oxygen tolerance. A few identified systems such as superoxide dismutases and peroxidases are probably responsible for this protection against toxic oxygen species. Another system was detected, a heme oxygenase which could have a role in establishing or maintaining an anoxic microenvironment in the process of wound colonization. The hemT gene encoding the heme oxygenase is expressed in C. tetani, as shown by reverse transcription-PCR. When overexpressed in Escherichia coli, the enzyme converts heme to biliverdin under strict oxic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holger Brüggemann
- Göttingen Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Grisebachstrasse 8, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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Marvaud JC, Raffestin S, Popoff MR. [Botulism: the agent, mode of action of the botulinum neurotoxins, forms of acquisition, treatment and prevention]. C R Biol 2002; 325:863-78; discussion 879-83. [PMID: 12391898 DOI: 10.1016/s1631-0691(02)01498-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The botulinum neurotoxins are produced by anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria belonging to the Clostridium genus. They are synthesised as a single chain protein (150 kDa), which is not or weakly active. The active form results from a proteolysis cleaving the precursor in a light chain (about 50 kDa) and a heavy chain (about 100 kDa), which are linked by a disulfide bridge. The heavy chain is involved in the recognition of a specific neuronal surface receptor and mediates the internalization of the light chain into the cytosol. The light chain is responsible for the intracellular activity. It catalyses the proteolysis of SNARE proteins, which are involved in the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine. Hence, the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction is blocked, leading to a flaccid paralysis. Human botulism, usually type A, B or E, is associated with intoxination, ingestion of preformed toxin in food, with digestive toxi-infection, mainly in newborns (infant botulism), or with wound contamination (wound botulism). The treatment of botulism is usually symptomatic. The specific treatment is based on the serotherapy or on the use of purified specific antibodies. The vaccination against botulism is efficient. However, since the botulinum neurotoxins are widely used for the treatment of numerous dystonias, a generalised vaccination is not conceivable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Christophe Marvaud
- Centre national de référence des anaérobies et du botulisme, Institut Pasteur, 28, rue du Docteur-Roux, 75724 Paris, France
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Popoff MR, Marvaud JC, Raffestin S. [Mechanism of action and therapeutic uses of botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins]. Ann Pharm Fr 2001; 59:176-90. [PMID: 11427819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins are produced by anaerobic spore forming bacteria, Clostridiumbotulinum. They are synthesized as a single chain protein (150kDa) which is not or weakly active. The active form results from proteolysis that cleaves the precursor into a light chain (about 50kDa) and a heavy chain (about 100kDa) which are linked by a disulfide bridge. The heavy chain is involved in the recognition of a specific neurone surface receptor and mediates the internalization of the light chain into the cytosol. The light chain is responsible for the intracellular activity. It catalyzes the proteolysis of SNARE proteins which are involved in the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine. Hence, the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction is blocked leading to a flaccid paralysis. The tetanus neurotoxin shares with botulinum neurotoxins a common structure and mechanism of action. Tetanus neurotoxin blocks the release of neurotransmitters in the inhibitory interneurons leading to spastic paralysis. The paralytic properties of the botulinum neurotoxins are used to treat certain myoclonies such as blepharospasm, torticolis, hemifacial paralysis. Botulinum neurotoxins are thus efficient therapeutic agents helpful in avoiding surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Popoff
- Centre National de Référence des Bactéries Anaérobies, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr. Roux, F. 75724 Paris cedex 15
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Marvaud
- CNR anaérobies, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Gibert M, Petit L, Raffestin S, Okabe A, Popoff MR. Clostridium perfringens iota-toxin requires activation of both binding and enzymatic components for cytopathic activity. Infect Immun 2000; 68:3848-53. [PMID: 10858193 PMCID: PMC101657 DOI: 10.1128/iai.68.7.3848-3853.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Iota-toxin is produced by Clostridium perfringens type E strains and consists of two independent components, the enzymatic and binding components, referred to as Ia and Ib, respectively. A recombinant C. perfringens strain, strain 667/pMRP147, produced processed Ia and partially processed Ib, while a recombinant C. perfringens type A strain, strain TS133/pMRP147, in which the VirR-VirS two-component system is inactivated, produced only precursor forms of Ia and Ib. This suggests that iota-toxin is processed by a VirR-VirS-responsive protease, although not completely in the recombinant type A strain. The precursor forms of Ia and Ib were purified from cultures of the latter strain, and their proteolytic activation was examined. Treatment with proteases cleaved off small peptides (9 to 13 amino acid residues) and a 20-kDa peptide from the N termini of the Ia and Ib precursors, respectively, leading to their active forms. They were activated efficiently by alpha-chymotrypsin, pepsin, proteinase K, subtilisin, and thermolysin but only weakly by trypsin, as demonstrated by the cell-rounding assay. lambda-Protease from the C. perfringens type E strain, which was found to be a zinc-dependent protease related to thermolysin, activated iota-toxin as efficiently as did alpha-chymotrypsin. These results suggest that lambda-protease is most responsible for the activation of iota-toxin in type E strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Gibert
- Unité des Toxines Microbiennes, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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