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Seow J, Shalim ZA, Graham C, Kimuda S, Pillai A, Lechmere T, Kurshan A, Khimji AM, Snell LB, Nebbia G, Mant C, Waters A, Fox J, Malim MH, Doores KJ. Broad and potent neutralizing antibodies are elicited in vaccinated individuals following Delta/BA.1 breakthrough infection. mBio 2023; 14:e0120623. [PMID: 37747187 PMCID: PMC10653880 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01206-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE With the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 viral variants, there has been an increase in infections in vaccinated individuals. Here, we isolated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from individuals experiencing a breakthrough infection (Delta or BA.1) to determine how exposure to a heterologous Spike broadens the neutralizing antibody response at the monoclonal level. All mAbs isolated had reactivity to the Spike of the vaccine and infection variant. While many mAbs showed reduced neutralization of current circulating variants, we identified mAbs with broad and potent neutralization of BA.2.75.2, XBB, XBB.1.5, and BQ.1.1 indicating the presence of conserved epitopes on Spike. These results indicate that variant-based vaccine boosters have the potential to broaden the vaccine response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zayed A. Shalim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Kimuda
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Aswin Pillai
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashwini Kurshan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Atika M. Khimji
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luke B. Snell
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gaia Nebbia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Mant
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases Biobank, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anele Waters
- Harrison Wing, Guy's and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Julie Fox
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Harrison Wing, Guy's and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael H. Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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2
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Harrington P, Kurshan A, Delord M, Lechmere T, Sheikh A, Saunders J, Saha C, Dillon R, Woodley C, Asirvatham S, Curto-Garcia N, Sullivan JO, Kordasti S, Radia D, McLornan D, Malim MH, Harrison C, Doores KJ, de Lavallade H. Third-dose SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine increases Omicron variant neutralization in patients with chronic myeloid disorders. Blood Adv 2023; 7:1954-1957. [PMID: 36083126 PMCID: PMC9472701 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2022008375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Harrington
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashwini Kurshan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Delord
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Amna Sheikh
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Saunders
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chandan Saha
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Dillon
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Genetics, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Woodley
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Asirvatham
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Natalia Curto-Garcia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer O’ Sullivan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Shahram Kordasti
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Deepti Radia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Donal McLornan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Haematology, University College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael H. Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Harrison
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hugues de Lavallade
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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3
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McKenzie DR, Graham R, Lechmere T, Domingo-Vila C, Alaguthurai T, Arman C, Pollock E, Gousis C, Kakkassery H, Carpenter E, Kurshan A, Vidler J, Kulasekararaj A, Patten P, North BV, Tree T, Doores KJ, Hayday AC, Irshad S. Boosting of Waned Humoral and Cellular Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern Among Patients with Cancer. Cancer Res Commun 2022; 2:1449-1461. [PMID: 36824220 PMCID: PMC7614214 DOI: 10.1158/2767-9764.crc-22-0298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This study offers longitudinal insight into the impact of three SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations on humoral and cellular immunity in patients with solid cancers, patients with hematologic malignancies, and persons without cancer. For all cohorts, virus-neutralizing immunity was significantly depleted over a period of up to 9 months following the second vaccine dose, the one striking exception being IL2 production by SARS-CoV-2 antigen-specific T cells. Immunity was restored by the third vaccine dose, except in a substantial number of patients with hematologic malignancy, for whom both cancer type and treatment schedule were associated with nonresponse. Thus, whereas most patients with myelodysplastic syndrome were conspicuously good responders, some patients with other hematologic malignancies receiving cancer therapies within 2 weeks of vaccination showed no seroconversion despite three vaccine doses. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 exposure during the course of the study neither prevented immunity waning, even in healthy controls, nor guaranteed vaccine responsiveness. These data offer real-world human immunologic insights that can inform health policy for patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rosalind Graham
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Clara Domingo-Vila
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thanussuyah Alaguthurai
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Celeste Arman
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Pollock
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Helen Kakkassery
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Esme Carpenter
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashwini Kurshan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Vidler
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Austin Kulasekararaj
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Piers Patten
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bernard V. North
- Clinical Trials Unit, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy Tree
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian C. Hayday
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sheeba Irshad
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer & Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
- Guy's and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Cancer Research UK (CRUK) Clinician Scientist, London, United Kingdom
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Seow J, Graham C, Hallett SR, Lechmere T, Maguire TJA, Huettner I, Cox D, Khan H, Pickering S, Roberts R, Waters A, Ward CC, Mant C, Pitcher MJ, Spencer J, Fox J, Malim MH, Doores KJ. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine elicits monoclonal antibodies with cross-neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 viral variants. Cell Rep 2022; 39:110757. [PMID: 35477023 PMCID: PMC9010245 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination has been studied extensively at the polyclonal level using immune sera, little has been reported on the antibody response at the monoclonal level. Here, we isolate a panel of 44 anti-SARS-CoV-2 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from an individual who received two doses of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222) vaccine at a 12-week interval. We show that, despite a relatively low serum neutralization titer, Spike-reactive IgG+ B cells are still detectable 9 months post-boost. Furthermore, mAbs with potent neutralizing activity against the current SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (Alpha, Gamma, Beta, Delta, and Omicron) are present. The vaccine-elicited neutralizing mAbs form eight distinct competition groups and bind epitopes overlapping with neutralizing mAbs elicited following SARS-CoV-2 infection. AZD1222-elicited mAbs are more mutated than mAbs isolated from convalescent donors 1-2 months post-infection. These findings provide molecular insights into the AZD1222 vaccine-elicited antibody response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sadie R Hallett
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas J A Maguire
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Isabella Huettner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Daniel Cox
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hataf Khan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Suzanne Pickering
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | | | - Anele Waters
- Harrison Wing, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Christopher C Ward
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Christine Mant
- Infectious Diseases Biobank, Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael J Pitcher
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jo Spencer
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Julie Fox
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK; Harrison Wing, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
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5
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Abdul-Jawad S, Beatson R, Lechmere T, Graham R, Alaguthurai T, Graham C, Vidler J, Kulasekararaj A, Patten PEM, Doores KJ, Irshad S. BNT162b2 COVID-19 and ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination in patients with myelodysplastic syndromes. Haematologica 2022; 107:1181-1184. [PMID: 35045695 PMCID: PMC9052909 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2021.280337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sultan Abdul-Jawad
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Richard Beatson
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Rosalind Graham
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Thanussuyah Alaguthurai
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Jennifer Vidler
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | | | - Piers E M Patten
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Sheeba Irshad
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, UK; Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Cancer Research UK (CRUK) Clinician Scientist, London, UK.
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6
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Lechmere T, Snell LB, Graham C, Seow J, Shalim ZA, Charalampous T, Alcolea-Medina A, Batra R, Nebbia G, Edgeworth JD, Malim MH, Doores KJ. Broad Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 Variants, Including Omicron, following Breakthrough Infection with Delta in COVID-19-Vaccinated Individuals. mBio 2022; 13:e0379821. [PMID: 35297676 PMCID: PMC9040729 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03798-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that a prior SARS-CoV-2 infection can greatly enhance the antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination, with this so called "hybrid immunity" leading to greater neutralization breadth against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. However, little is known about how breakthrough infection (BTI) in COVID-19-vaccinated individuals will impact the magnitude and breadth of the neutralizing antibody response. Here, we compared neutralizing antibody responses between unvaccinated and COVID-19-double-vaccinated individuals (including both AZD1222 and BNT162b2 vaccinees) who have been infected with the Delta (B.1.617.2) variant. Rapid production of spike-reactive IgG was observed in the vaccinated group, providing evidence of effective vaccine priming. Overall, potent cross-neutralizing activity against current SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern was observed in the BTI group compared to the infection group, including neutralization of the Omicron (B.1.1.529) variant. This study provides important insights into population immunity where transmission levels remain high and in the context of new or emerging variants of concern. IMPORTANCE COVID-19 vaccines have been vital in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infections and reducing hospitalizations. However, breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections (BTI) occur in some vaccinated individuals. Here, we study how BTI impacts on the potency and the breadth of the neutralizing antibody response. We show that a Delta infection in COVID-19-vaccinated individuals provides potent neutralization against the current SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, including the Omicron variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luke B. Snell
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zayed A. Shalim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Themoula Charalampous
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Adela Alcolea-Medina
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rahul Batra
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gaia Nebbia
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan D. Edgeworth
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael H. Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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7
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Harrington P, Doores KJ, Saunders J, de Lord M, Saha C, Lechmere T, Khan H, Lam HPJ, Reilly AO, Woodley C, Asirvatham S, Dillon R, Curto-Garcia N, Sullivan JO, Kordasti S, Raj K, Malim MH, Radia D, McLornan D, Harrison C, de Lavallade H. Impaired humoral and T cell response to vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 in chronic myeloproliferative neoplasm patients treated with ruxolitinib. Blood Cancer J 2022; 12:73. [PMID: 35459222 PMCID: PMC9024068 DOI: 10.1038/s41408-022-00651-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Harrington
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jamie Saunders
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Marc de Lord
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Chandan Saha
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hataf Khan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ho Pui Jeff Lam
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Amy O' Reilly
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Claire Woodley
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Susan Asirvatham
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Richard Dillon
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Natalia Curto-Garcia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jennifer O' Sullivan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Shahram Kordasti
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Kavita Raj
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Deepti Radia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Donal McLornan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Claire Harrison
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hugues de Lavallade
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK.
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8
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Mahil SK, Bechman K, Raharja A, Domingo-Vila C, Baudry D, Brown MA, Cope AP, Dasandi T, Graham C, Khan H, Lechmere T, Malim MH, Meynell F, Pollock E, Sychowska K, Barker JN, Norton S, Galloway JB, Doores KJ, Tree T, Smith CH. Humoral and cellular immunogenicity to a second dose of COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b2 in people receiving methotrexate or targeted immunosuppression: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol 2022; 4:e42-e52. [PMID: 34778846 PMCID: PMC8577228 DOI: 10.1016/s2665-9913(21)00333-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND COVID-19 vaccines have robust immunogenicity in the general population. However, data for individuals with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases who are taking immunosuppressants remains scarce. Our previously published cohort study showed that methotrexate, but not targeted biologics, impaired functional humoral immunity to a single dose of COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech), whereas cellular responses were similar. Here, we aimed to assess immune responses following the second dose. METHODS In this longitudinal cohort study, we recruited individuals with psoriasis who were receiving methotrexate or targeted biological monotherapy (ie, tumour necrosis factor [TNF] inhibitors, interleukin [IL]-17 inhibitors, or IL-23 inhibitors) from a specialist psoriasis centre serving London and South-East England. The healthy control cohort were volunteers without psoriasis, not receiving immunosuppression. Immunogenicity was evaluated immediately before, on day 28 after the first BNT162b2 vaccination and on day 14 after the second dose (administered according to an extended interval regimen). Here, we report immune responses following the second dose. The primary outcomes were humoral immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein, defined as titres of total spike-specific IgG and of neutralising antibody to wild-type, alpha (B.1.1.7), and delta (B.1.617.2) SARS-CoV-2 variants, and cellular immunity defined as spike-specific T-cell responses (including numbers of cells producing interferon-γ, IL-2, IL-21). FINDINGS Between Jan 14 and April 4, 2021, 121 individuals were recruited, and data were available for 82 participants after the second vaccination. The study population included patients with psoriasis receiving methotrexate (n=14), TNF inhibitors (n=19), IL-17 inhibitors (n=14), IL-23 inhibitors (n=20), and 15 healthy controls, who had received both vaccine doses. The median age of the study population was 44 years (IQR 33-52), with 43 (52%) males and 71 (87%) participants of White ethnicity. All participants had detectable spike-specific antibodies following the second dose, and all groups (methotrexate, targeted biologics, and healthy controls) demonstrated similar neutralising antibody titres against wild-type, alpha, and delta variants. By contrast, a lower proportion of participants on methotrexate (eight [62%] of 13, 95% CI 32-86) and targeted biologics (37 [74%] of 50, 60-85; p=0·38) had detectable T-cell responses following the second vaccine dose, compared with controls (14 [100%] of 14, 77-100; p=0·022). There was no difference in the magnitude of T-cell responses between patients receiving methotrexate (median cytokine-secreting cells per 106 cells 160 [IQR 10-625]), targeted biologics (169 [25-503], p=0·56), and controls (185 [133-328], p=0·41). INTERPRETATION Functional humoral immunity (ie, neutralising antibody responses) at 14 days following a second dose of BNT162b2 was not impaired by methotrexate or targeted biologics. A proportion of patients on immunosuppression did not have detectable T-cell responses following the second dose. The longevity of vaccine-elicited antibody responses is unknown in this population. FUNDING NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London; The Psoriasis Association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satveer K Mahil
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie Bechman
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Antony Raharja
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Clara Domingo-Vila
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - David Baudry
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew A Brown
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew P Cope
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Tejus Dasandi
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hataf Khan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Freya Meynell
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Emily Pollock
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Kamila Sychowska
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan N Barker
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sam Norton
- Psychology Department, Institute for Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - James B Galloway
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Timothy Tree
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Catherine H Smith
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
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Harrington P, Doores KJ, Saha C, Saunders J, Child F, Dillon R, Saglam S, Raj K, McLornan D, Avenoso D, Kordasti S, O'Reilly A, Espehana A, Lechmere T, Khan H, Malim MH, Harrison C, Mehra V, de Lavallade H. Repeated vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 elicits robust polyfunctional T cell response in allogeneic stem cell transplantation recipients. Cancer Cell 2021; 39:1654. [PMID: 34906318 PMCID: PMC8667332 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2021.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Harrington P, de Lavallade H, Doores KJ, O'Reilly A, Seow J, Graham C, Lechmere T, Radia D, Dillon R, Shanmugharaj Y, Espehana A, Woodley C, Saunders J, Curto-Garcia N, O'Sullivan J, Raj K, Kordasti S, Malim MH, Harrison CN, McLornan DP. Single dose of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 induces high frequency of neutralising antibody and polyfunctional T-cell responses in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms. Leukemia 2021; 35:3573-3577. [PMID: 34023850 PMCID: PMC8140572 DOI: 10.1038/s41375-021-01300-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Harrington
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hugues de Lavallade
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College London School of Medicine, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Amy O'Reilly
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Deepti Radia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Richard Dillon
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Yogita Shanmugharaj
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Andreas Espehana
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Claire Woodley
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jamie Saunders
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Natalia Curto-Garcia
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jennifer O'Sullivan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Kavita Raj
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Shahram Kordasti
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Claire N Harrison
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Donal P McLornan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK.
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK.
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11
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Harrington P, Doores KJ, Saha C, Saunders J, Child F, Dillon R, Saglam S, Raj K, McLornan D, Avenoso D, Kordasti S, O'Reilly A, Espehana A, Lechmere T, Khan H, Malim MH, Harrison C, Mehra V, de Lavallade H. Repeated vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 elicits robust polyfunctional T cell response in allogeneic stem cell transplantation recipients. Cancer Cell 2021; 39:1448-1449. [PMID: 34717827 PMCID: PMC8506143 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Harrington
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Chandan Saha
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jamie Saunders
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Fiona Child
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Richard Dillon
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Department of Medicine & Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sukran Saglam
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Kavita Raj
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Donal McLornan
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Daniele Avenoso
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Shahram Kordasti
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Amy O'Reilly
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Andreas Espehana
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hataf Khan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Claire Harrison
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Varun Mehra
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Hugues de Lavallade
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Guy's & St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK.
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McKenzie DR, Muñoz-Ruiz M, Monin L, Alaguthurai T, Lechmere T, Abdul-Jawad S, Graham C, Pollock E, Graham R, Sychowska K, Seow J, Tremain C, Gousis C, Domingo-Vila C, Cooper J, Vidler J, Owczarczyk K, Swampillai A, Kristeleit H, Malim MH, Fields P, Patten PEM, Papa S, North BV, Tree T, Doores KJ, Hayday AC, Irshad S. Humoral and cellular immunity to delayed second dose of SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination in patients with cancer. Cancer Cell 2021; 39:1445-1447. [PMID: 34678151 PMCID: PMC8506107 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2021.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Thanussuyah Alaguthurai
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Sultan Abdul-Jawad
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Emily Pollock
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Rosalind Graham
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Kamila Sychowska
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | | | | | - Clara Domingo-Vila
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Jack Cooper
- Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jennifer Vidler
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | | | - Angela Swampillai
- Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, UK; Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | | | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Paul Fields
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Piers E M Patten
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK
| | - Sophie Papa
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | | | - Timothy Tree
- Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Adrian C Hayday
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK; Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, UK
| | - Sheeba Irshad
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, UK; Breast Cancer Now Research Unit, King's College London, London, UK; Guy's and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Cancer Research UK (CRUK) Clinician Scientist, London, UK.
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13
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Dupont L, Snell LB, Graham C, Seow J, Merrick B, Lechmere T, Maguire TJA, Hallett SR, Pickering S, Charalampous T, Alcolea-Medina A, Huettner I, Jimenez-Guardeño JM, Acors S, Almeida N, Cox D, Dickenson RE, Galao RP, Kouphou N, Lista MJ, Ortega-Prieto AM, Wilson H, Winstone H, Fairhead C, Su JZ, Nebbia G, Batra R, Neil S, Shankar-Hari M, Edgeworth JD, Malim MH, Doores KJ. Neutralizing antibody activity in convalescent sera from infection in humans with SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern. Nat Microbiol 2021; 6:1433-1442. [PMID: 34654917 PMCID: PMC8556155 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-021-00974-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
COVID-19 vaccine design and vaccination rollout need to take into account a detailed understanding of antibody durability and cross-neutralizing potential against SARS-CoV-2 and emerging variants of concern (VOCs). Analyses of convalescent sera provide unique insights into antibody longevity and cross-neutralizing activity induced by variant spike proteins, which are putative vaccine candidates. Using sera from 38 individuals infected in wave 1, we show that cross-neutralizing activity can be detected up to 305 days pos onset of symptoms, although sera were less potent against B.1.1.7 (Alpha) and B1.351 (Beta). Over time, despite a reduction in overall neutralization activity, differences in sera neutralization potency against SARS-CoV-2 and the Alpha and Beta variants decreased, which suggests that continued antibody maturation improves tolerance to spike mutations. We also compared the cross-neutralizing activity of wave 1 sera with sera from individuals infected with the Alpha, the Beta or the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variants up to 79 days post onset of symptoms. While these sera neutralize the infecting VOC and parental virus to similar levels, cross-neutralization of different SARS-CoV-2 VOC lineages is reduced. These findings will inform the optimization of vaccines to protect against SARS-CoV-2 variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liane Dupont
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Luke B Snell
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Blair Merrick
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas J A Maguire
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sadie R Hallett
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Suzanne Pickering
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Themoula Charalampous
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Adela Alcolea-Medina
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Isabella Huettner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jose M Jimenez-Guardeño
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sam Acors
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Nathalia Almeida
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Daniel Cox
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ruth E Dickenson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Rui Pedro Galao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Neophytos Kouphou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Marie Jose Lista
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ana Maria Ortega-Prieto
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Harry Wilson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Helena Winstone
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Cassandra Fairhead
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jia Zhe Su
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Gaia Nebbia
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Rahul Batra
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Stuart Neil
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Manu Shankar-Hari
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan D Edgeworth
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
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Mahil SK, Bechman K, Raharja A, Domingo-Vila C, Baudry D, Brown MA, Cope AP, Dasandi T, Graham C, Lechmere T, Malim MH, Meynell F, Pollock E, Seow J, Sychowska K, Barker JN, Norton S, Galloway JB, Doores KJ, Tree TIM, Smith CH. The effect of methotrexate and targeted immunosuppression on humoral and cellular immune responses to the COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b2: a cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol 2021; 3:e627-e637. [PMID: 34258590 PMCID: PMC8266273 DOI: 10.1016/s2665-9913(21)00212-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients on therapeutic immunosuppressants for immune-mediated inflammatory diseases were excluded from COVID-19 vaccine trials. We therefore aimed to evaluate humoral and cellular immune responses to COVID-19 vaccine BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) in patients taking methotrexate and commonly used targeted biological therapies, compared with healthy controls. Given the roll-out of extended interval vaccination programmes to maximise population coverage, we present findings after the first dose. METHODS In this cohort study, we recruited consecutive patients with a dermatologist-confirmed diagnosis of psoriasis who were receiving methotrexate or targeted biological monotherapy (tumour necrosis factor [TNF] inhibitors, interleukin [IL]-17 inhibitors, or IL-23 inhibitors) from a specialist psoriasis centre serving London and South East England. Consecutive volunteers without psoriasis and not receiving systemic immunosuppression who presented for vaccination at Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust (London, UK) were included as the healthy control cohort. All participants had to be eligible to receive the BNT162b2 vaccine. Immunogenicity was evaluated immediately before and on day 28 (±2 days) after vaccination. The primary outcomes were humoral immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein, defined as neutralising antibody responses to wild-type SARS-CoV-2, and spike-specific T-cell responses (including interferon-γ, IL-2, and IL-21) 28 days after vaccination. FINDINGS Between Jan 14 and April 4, 2021, 84 patients with psoriasis (17 on methotrexate, 27 on TNF inhibitors, 15 on IL-17 inhibitors, and 25 on IL-23 inhibitors) and 17 healthy controls were included. The study population had a median age of 43 years (IQR 31-52), with 56 (55%) males, 45 (45%) females, and 85 (84%) participants of White ethnicity. Seroconversion rates were lower in patients receiving immunosuppressants (60 [78%; 95% CI 67-87] of 77) than in controls (17 [100%; 80-100] of 17), with the lowest rate in those receiving methotrexate (seven [47%; 21-73] of 15). Neutralising activity against wild-type SARS-CoV-2 was significantly lower in patients receiving methotrexate (median 50% inhibitory dilution 129 [IQR 40-236]) than in controls (317 [213-487], p=0·0032), but was preserved in those receiving targeted biologics (269 [141-418]). Neutralising titres against the B.1.1.7 variant were similarly low in all participants. Cellular immune responses were induced in all groups, and were not attenuated in patients receiving methotrexate or targeted biologics compared with controls. INTERPRETATION Functional humoral immunity to a single dose of BNT162b2 is impaired by methotrexate but not by targeted biologics, whereas cellular responses are preserved. Seroconversion alone might not adequately reflect vaccine immunogenicity in individuals with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases receiving therapeutic immunosuppression. Real-world pharmacovigilance studies will determine how these findings reflect clinical effectiveness. FUNDING UK National Institute for Health Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satveer K Mahil
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie Bechman
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Antony Raharja
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Clara Domingo-Vila
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - David Baudry
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew A Brown
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew P Cope
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Tejus Dasandi
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Freya Meynell
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Emily Pollock
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jeffery Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Kamila Sychowska
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan N Barker
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sam Norton
- Psychology Department, Institute for Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - James B Galloway
- Centre for Rheumatic Diseases, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Timothy I M Tree
- Department of Immunobiology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Catherine H Smith
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, UK
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15
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Harrington P, Doores KJ, Radia D, O’Reilly A, Lam HPJ, Seow J, Graham C, Lechmere T, McLornan D, Dillon R, Shanmugharaj Y, Espehana A, Woodley C, Saunders J, Curto-Garcia N, O'Sullivan J, Raj K, Kordasti S, Malim MH, Harrison C, de Lavallade H. Single dose of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces neutralising antibody and polyfunctional T-cell responses in patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia. Br J Haematol 2021; 194:999-1006. [PMID: 34085278 PMCID: PMC8239833 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.17568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Patients receiving targeted cancer treatments such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been classified in the clinically extremely vulnerable group to develop severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), including patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) taking TKIs. In addition, concerns that immunocompromised individuals with solid and haematological malignancies may not mount an adequate immune response to a single dose of SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech) vaccine have been raised. In the present study, we evaluated humoral and cellular immune responses after a first injection of BNT162b2 vaccine in 16 patients with CML. Seroconversion and cellular immune response before and after vaccination were assessed. By day 21 after vaccination, anti-Spike immunoglobulin G was detected in 14/16 (87·5%) of the patients with CML and all developed a neutralising antibody response [serum dilution that inhibits 50% infection (ID50 ) >50], including medium (ID50 of 200-500) or high (ID50 of 501-2000) neutralising antibodies titres in nine of the 16 (56·25%) patients. T-cell response was seen in 14/15 (93·3%) evaluable patients, with polyfunctional responses seen in 12/15 (80%) patients (polyfunctional CD4+ response nine of 15, polyfunctional CD8+ T-cell response nine of 15). These data demonstrate the immunogenicity of a single dose of SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccine in most patients with CML, with both neutralising antibodies and polyfunctional T-cell responses seen in contrast to patients with solid tumour or lymphoid haematological malignancies.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Antibodies, Neutralizing/immunology
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- BNT162 Vaccine
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- COVID-19/immunology
- COVID-19/prevention & control
- COVID-19 Vaccines/administration & dosage
- COVID-19 Vaccines/immunology
- Female
- Hematologic Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Hematologic Neoplasms/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular/drug effects
- Immunoglobulin G/immunology
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/immunology
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Protein Kinase Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- SARS-CoV-2/immunology
- Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Harrington
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical ScienceKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Katie J. Doores
- Department of Infectious DiseasesSchool of Immunology and Microbial SciencesKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Deepti Radia
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Amy O’Reilly
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Ho Pui Jeff Lam
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious DiseasesSchool of Immunology and Microbial SciencesKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious DiseasesSchool of Immunology and Microbial SciencesKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious DiseasesSchool of Immunology and Microbial SciencesKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Donal McLornan
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical ScienceKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Richard Dillon
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- Department of Medicine and Molecular GeneticsKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Yogita Shanmugharaj
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Andreas Espehana
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Claire Woodley
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Jamie Saunders
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Natalia Curto-Garcia
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Jennifer O'Sullivan
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Kavita Raj
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
| | - Shahram Kordasti
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical ScienceKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Michael H. Malim
- Department of Infectious DiseasesSchool of Immunology and Microbial SciencesKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Claire Harrison
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical ScienceKing’s College LondonLondonUK
| | - Hugues de Lavallade
- Department of Clinical HaematologyGuy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK
- School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical ScienceKing’s College LondonLondonUK
- Department of Haematological MedicineKing’s College London School of MedicineLondonUK
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16
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Dupont L, Snell LB, Graham C, Seow J, Merrick B, Lechmere T, Hallett SR, Charalampous T, Alcolea-Medina A, Huettner I, Maguire TJA, Acors S, Almeida N, Cox D, Dickenson RE, Galao RP, Jimenez-Guardeño JM, Kouphou N, Lista MJ, Pickering S, Ortega-Prieto AM, Wilson H, Winstone H, Fairhead C, Su J, Nebbia G, Batra R, Neil S, Shankar-Hari M, Edgeworth JD, Malim MH, Doores KJ. Antibody longevity and cross-neutralizing activity following SARS-CoV-2 wave 1 and B.1.1.7 infections. medRxiv 2021:2021.06.07.21258351. [PMID: 34127977 PMCID: PMC8202432 DOI: 10.1101/2021.06.07.21258351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
As SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to emerge globally, a major challenge for COVID-19 vaccination is the generation of a durable antibody response with cross-neutralizing activity against both current and newly emerging viral variants. Cross-neutralizing activity against major variants of concern (B.1.1.7, P.1 and B.1.351) has been observed following vaccination, albeit at a reduced potency, but whether vaccines based on the Spike glycoprotein of these viral variants will produce a superior cross-neutralizing antibody response has not been fully investigated. Here, we used sera from individuals infected in wave 1 in the UK to study the long-term cross-neutralization up to 10 months post onset of symptoms (POS), as well as sera from individuals infected with the B.1.1.7 variant to compare cross-neutralizing activity profiles. We show that neutralizing antibodies with cross-neutralizing activity can be detected from wave 1 up to 10 months POS. Although neutralization of B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 is lower, the difference in neutralization potency decreases at later timepoints suggesting continued antibody maturation and improved tolerance to Spike mutations. Interestingly, we found that B.1.1.7 infection also generates a cross-neutralizing antibody response, which, although still less potent against B.1.351, can neutralize parental wave 1 virus to a similar degree as B.1.1.7. These findings have implications for the optimization of vaccines that protect against newly emerging viral variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liane Dupont
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Luke B Snell
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Carl Graham
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jeffrey Seow
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Blair Merrick
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Thomas Lechmere
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sadie R Hallett
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Themoula Charalampous
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Adela Alcolea-Medina
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Isabella Huettner
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Thomas J A Maguire
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Sam Acors
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Nathalia Almeida
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Daniel Cox
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ruth E Dickenson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Rui Pedro Galao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jose M Jimenez-Guardeño
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Neophytos Kouphou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Marie Jose Lista
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Suzanne Pickering
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ana Maria Ortega-Prieto
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Harry Wilson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Helena Winstone
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Cassandra Fairhead
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jia Su
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Gaia Nebbia
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Rahul Batra
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Stuart Neil
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Manu Shankar-Hari
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jonathan D Edgeworth
- Centre for Clinical Infection and Diagnostics Research, Department of Infectious Diseases, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Michael H Malim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Katie J Doores
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
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