Characterization of Channelrhodopsin and Archaerhodopsin in Cholinergic Neurons of Cre-Lox Transgenic Mice

The study of cholinergic signaling in the mammalian CNS has been greatly facilitated by the advent of mouse lines that permit the expression of reporter proteins, such as opsins, in cholinergic neurons. However, the expression of opsins could potentially perturb the physiology of opsin-expressing cholinergic neurons or mouse behavior. Indeed, the published literature includes examples of cellular and behavioral perturbations in preparations designed to drive expression of opsins in cholinergic neurons. Here we investigate expression of opsins, cellular physiology of cholinergic neurons and behavior in two mouse lines, in which channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and archaerhodopsin (Arch) are expressed in cholinergic neurons using the Cre-lox system. The two mouse lines were generated by crossing ChAT-Cre mice with Cre-dependent reporter lines Ai32(ChR2-YFP) and Ai35(Arch-GFP). In most mice from these crosses, we observed expression of ChR2 and Arch in only cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and in other putative cholinergic neurons in the forebrain. In small numbers of mice, off-target expression occurred, in which fluorescence did not appear limited to cholinergic neurons. Whole-cell recordings from fluorescently-labeled basal forebrain neurons revealed that both proteins were functional, driving depolarization (ChR2) or hyperpolarization (Arch) upon illumination, with little effect on passive membrane properties, spiking pattern or spike waveform. Finally, performance on a behavioral discrimination task was comparable to that of wild-type mice. Our results indicate that ChAT-Cre x reporter line crosses provide a simple, effective resource for driving indicator and opsin expression in cholinergic neurons with few adverse consequences and are therefore an valuable resource for studying the cholinergic system.

Acetylcholine excites neocortical pyramidal neurons via nicotinic receptors

The neuromodulator acetylcholine (ACh) shapes neocortical function during sensory perception, motor control, arousal, attention, learning, and memory. Here we investigate the mechanisms by which ACh affects neocortical pyramidal neurons in adult mice. Stimulation of cholinergic axons activated muscarinic and nicotinic ACh receptors on pyramidal neurons in all cortical layers and in multiple cortical areas. Nicotinic receptor activation evoked short-latency, depolarizing postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) in many pyramidal neurons. Nicotinic receptor-mediated PSPs promoted spiking of pyramidal neurons. The duration of the increase in spiking was membrane potential dependent, with nicotinic receptor activation triggering persistent spiking lasting many seconds in neurons close to threshold. Persistent spiking was blocked by intracellular BAPTA, indicating that nicotinic ACh receptor activation evoked persistent spiking via a long-lasting calcium-activated depolarizing current. We compared nicotinic PSPs in primary motor cortex (M1), prefrontal cortex (PFC), and visual cortex. The laminar pattern of nicotinic excitation was not uniform but was broadly similar across areas, with stronger modulation in deep than superficial layers. Superimposed on this broad pattern were local differences, with nicotinic PSPs being particularly large and common in layer 5 of M1 but not layer 5 of PFC or primary visual cortex (V1). Hence, in addition to modulating the excitability of pyramidal neurons in all layers via muscarinic receptors, synaptically released ACh preferentially increases the activity of deep-layer neocortical pyramidal neurons via nicotinic receptors, thereby adding laminar selectivity to the widespread enhancement of excitability mediated by muscarinic ACh receptors.

A comparative study of the hovering efficiency of flapping and revolving wings

Direct numerical simulations are used to explore the hovering performance and efficiency for hawkmoth-inspired flapping and revolving wings at Reynolds (Re) numbers varying from 50 to 4800. This range covers the gamut from small (fruit fly size) to large (hawkmoth size) flying insects and is also relevant to the design of micro- and nano-aerial vehicles. The flapping wing configuration chosen here corresponds to a hovering hawkmoth and the model is derived from high-speed videogrammetry of this insect. The revolving wing configuration also employs the wings of the hawkmoth but these are arranged in a dual-blade configuration typical of helicopters. Flow for both of these configurations is simulated over the range of Reynolds numbers of interest and the aerodynamic performance of the two compared. The comparison of these two seemingly different configurations raises issues regarding the appropriateness of various performance metrics and even characteristic scales; these are also addressed in the current study. Finally, the difference in the performance between the two is correlated with the flow physics of the two configurations. The study indicates that viscous forces dominate the aerodynamic power expenditure of the revolving wing to a degree not observed for the flapping wing. Consequently, the lift-to-power metric of the revolving wing declines rapidly with decreasing Reynolds numbers resulting in a hovering performance that is at least a factor of 2 lower than the flapping wing at Reynolds numbers less than about 100.

The significance of moment-of-inertia variation in flight manoeuvres of butterflies

The objective of this study is to understand the role that changes in body moment of inertia might play during flight manoeuvres of insects. High-speed, high-resolution videogrammetry is used to quantify the trajectory and body conformation of Painted Lady butterflies during flight manoeuvres; the 3D kinematics of the centre of masses of the various body parts of the insect is determined experimentally. Measurements of the mass properties of the insect are used to parameterize a simple flight dynamics model of the butterfly. Even though the mass of the flapping wings is small compared to the total mass of the insect, these experiments and subsequent analysis indicate that changes in moment of inertia during flight are large enough to influence the manoeuvres of these insects.

Effect of temperature on spiking patterns of neocortical layer 2/3 and layer 6 pyramidal neurons

The spiking patterns of neocortical pyramidal neurons are shaped by the conductances in their apical dendrites. We have previously shown that the spiking patterns of layer 5 pyramidal neurons change with temperature, probably because temperature modulates the electrical coupling between somatic and dendritic compartments. Here we determine whether temperature has similar effects on the spiking patterns of layer 2/3 and layer 6 pyramidal neurons in acute slices of mouse primary motor cortex. In both cell types, decreasing temperature led to more irregular spiking patterns. Our results indicate that a decrease in spiking regularity with decreasing temperature, probably mediated by increased electrical coupling between soma and dendrites, is common to all pyramidal neurons in motor cortex.

Selective optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic axons in neocortex

Acetylcholine profoundly affects neocortical function, being involved in arousal, attention, learning, memory, sensory and motor function, and plasticity. The majority of cholinergic afferents to neocortex are from neurons in nucleus basalis. Nucleus basalis also contains projecting neurons that release other transmitters, including GABA and possibly glutamate. Hence, electrical stimulation of nucleus basalis evokes the release of a mixture of neurotransmitters in neocortex, and this lack of selectivity has impeded research on cholinergic signaling in neocortex. We describe a method for the selective stimulation of cholinergic axons in neocortex. We used the Cre-lox system and a viral vector to express the light-activated protein channelrhodopsin-2 in cholinergic neurons in nucleus basalis and their axons in neocortex. Labeled neurons depolarized on illumination with blue light but were otherwise unchanged. In anesthetized mice, illumination of neocortex desynchronized the local field potential, indicating that light evoked release of ACh. This novel technique will enable many new studies of the cellular, network, and behavioral physiology of ACh in neocortex.

Spiking patterns of neocortical L5 pyramidal neurons in vitro change with temperature

A subset of pyramidal neurons in layer 5 of the mammalian neocortex can fire action potentials in brief, high-frequency bursts while others fire spikes at regularly spaced intervals. Here we show that individual layer 5 pyramidal neurons in acute slices from mouse primary motor cortex can adopt both regular and burst spiking patterns. During constant current injection at the soma, neurons displayed a regular firing pattern at 36–37°C, but switched to burst spiking patterns upon cooling the slice to 24–26°C. This change in firing pattern was reversible and repeatable and was independent of the somatic resting membrane potential. Hence these spiking patterns are not inherent to discrete populations of pyramidal neurons and are more interchangeable than previously thought. Burst spiking in these neurons is the result of electrical interactions between the soma and distal apical dendritic tree. Presumably the interactions between soma and distal dendrite are temperature-sensitive, suggesting that the manner in which layer 5 pyramidal neurons translate synaptic input into an output spiking pattern is fundamentally altered at sub-physiological temperatures.

Physiological properties of cholinergic and non-cholinergic magnocellular neurons in acute slices from adult mouse nucleus basalis

BACKGROUND

The basal forebrain is a series of nuclei that provides cholinergic input to much of the forebrain. The most posterior of these nuclei, nucleus basalis, provides cholinergic drive to neocortex and is involved in arousal and attention. The physiological properties of neurons in anterior basal forebrain nuclei, including medial septum, the diagonal band of Broca and substantia innominata, have been described previously. In contrast the physiological properties of neurons in nucleus basalis, the most posterior nucleus of the basal forebrain, are unknown.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here we investigate the physiological properties of neurons in adult mouse nucleus basalis. We obtained cell-attached and whole-cell recordings from magnocellular neurons in slices from P42-54 mice and compared cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons, distinguished retrospectively by anti-choline acetyltransferase immunocytochemistry. The majority (70-80%) of cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons were silent at rest. Spontaneously active cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons exhibited irregular spiking at 3 Hz and at 0.3 to 13.4 Hz, respectively. Cholinergic neurons had smaller, broader action potentials than non-cholinergic neurons (amplitudes 64+/-3.4 and 75+/-2 mV; half widths 0.52+/-0.04 and 0.33+/-0.02 ms). Cholinergic neurons displayed a more pronounced slow after-hyperpolarization than non-cholinergic neurons (13.3+/-2.2 and 3.6+/-0.5 mV) and were unable to spike at high frequencies during tonic current injection (maximum frequencies of approximately 20 Hz and >120 Hz).

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results indicate that neurons in nucleus basalis share similar physiological properties with neurons in anterior regions of the basal forebrain. Furthermore, cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons in nucleus basalis can be distinguished by their responses to injected current. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the physiological properties of cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons in the posterior aspects of the basal forebrain complex and the first study of basal forebrain neurons from the mouse.

Morning report: combining education with patient handover

INTRODUCTION

The advent of resident work hour restrictions has challenged us to train residents within a shorter working week, while ensuring continuity of patient care. We instituted morning report (MR) at the University of Virginia primarily as a means to accomplish these objectives. Serendipitously MR has become an integral educational tool for the surgical residents. The rationale for the format and instructional design are discussed in the context of learning theory.

METHODS

The chief residents as primary stakeholders were strongly encouraged to play a leadership role in designing MR. A faculty- led didactic format was rejected because of the importance of focusing on resident team building, and leadership, but poor faculty participation was also an issue.

RESULTS

The initial obstacles included timing, and designing the format.

CONCLUSIONS

MR is an opportunity for residents to exercise and improve their knowledge, leadership, presentation and problem-solving skills. We would hypothesise that the advantages for teaching are many and include that residents are prepared for actual clinical problems in a supportive environment with opportunities for immediate feedback and assessment. Reports of educational effectiveness of MR are mostly anecdotal and further studies are needed to characterise the types of learning and teaching that occur during MR and to document educational effectiveness.

Muscle volume, MRI relaxation times (T2), and body composition after spaceflight

Postflight changes in muscle volume, calf muscle transverse relaxation time, and total body composition were measured in 4 crewmembers after a 17-day mission and in 14-16 crewmembers in multiple shuttle/Mir missions of 16- to 28-wk duration. During the 17-day mission, all muscle regions except the hamstrings significantly decreased 3-10% compared with baseline. During the shuttle/Mir missions, there were significant decreases in muscle volume (5-17%) in all muscle groups except the neck. These changes, which reached a new steady state by 4 mo of flight or less, were reversed within 30-60 days after landing. Postflight swelling and elevation of calf muscle transverse relaxation time persisted for several weeks after flight, which suggests possible muscle damage. In contrast to the 17-day flight, in which loss in fat, but not lean body mass, was found (25), losses in bone mineral content and lean body mass, but not fat, were seen after the longer shuttle/Mir missions. The percent losses in total body lean body mass and bone mineral content were similar at approximately 3.4-3.5%, whereas the pelvis demonstrated the largest regional bone loss at 13%.

T2 vertebral bone marrow changes after space flight

Bone biopsies indicate that during immobilization bone marrow adipose tissue increases while the functional cellular fraction decreases. One objective of our Spacelab flight experiment was to determine, using in vivo volume-localized magnetic resonance spectroscopy (VLMRS), whether bone marrow composition was altered by space flight. Four crew members of a 17 day Spacelab mission participated in the experiment. The apparent cellular fraction and transverse relaxation time (T2) were determined twice before launch and at several times after flight. Immediately after flight, no significant change in the cellular fraction was found. However, the T2 of the cellular, but not the fat component increased following flight, although to a variable extent, in all crew members with a time course for return to baseline lasting several months. The T2 of seven control subjects showed no significant change. Although these observations may have several explanations, it is speculated that the observed T2 changes might reflect increased marrow osteoblastic activity during recovery from space flight.

Regional muscle loss after short duration spaceflight

BACKGROUND

Muscle strength and limb girth measurements during Skylab and Apollo missions suggested that loss of muscle mass may occur as a result of spaceflight. Extended duration spaceflight is important for the economical and practical use of space. The loss of muscle mass during spaceflight is a medical concern for long duration flights to the planets or extended stays aboard space stations. Understanding the extent and temporal relationships of muscle loss is important for the development of effective spaceflight countermeasures.

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesized that significant and measurable changes in muscle volume would occur in Shuttle crewmembers following 8 d of weightlessness.

METHODS

MRI was used to obtain the muscle volumes of the calf, thigh and lower back before and after the STS-47 Shuttle mission.

RESULTS

Statistical analyses demonstrated that the soleus-gastrocnemius (-6.3%), anterior calf (-3.9%), hamstrings (-8.3%), quadriceps (-6.0%) and intrinsic back (-10.3%) muscles were decreased, p < 0.05, compared to baseline, 24 h after landing. At 2 weeks post recovery, the hamstrings and intrinsic lower back muscles were still below baseline, p < 0.05.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that even short duration spaceflight can result in significant muscle atrophy.