Transmission blocking potency and immunogenicity of a plant-produced Pvs25-based subunit vaccine against Plasmodium vivax

Malaria transmission blocking (TB) vaccines (TBVs) directed against proteins expressed on the sexual stages of Plasmodium parasites are a potentially effective means to reduce transmission. Antibodies induced by TBVs block parasite development in the mosquito, and thus inhibit transmission to further human hosts. The ookinete surface protein P25 is a primary target for TBV development. Recently, transient expression in plants using hybrid viral vectors has demonstrated potential as a strategy for cost-effective and scalable production of recombinant vaccines. Using a plant virus-based expression system, we produced recombinant P25 protein of Plasmodium vivax (Pvs25) in Nicotiana benthamiana fused to a modified lichenase carrier protein. This candidate vaccine, Pvs25-FhCMB, was purified, characterized and evaluated for immunogenicity and efficacy using multiple adjuvants in a transgenic rodent model. An in vivo TB effect of up to a 65% reduction in intensity and 54% reduction in prevalence was observed using Abisco-100 adjuvant. The ability of this immunogen to induce a TB response was additionally combined with heterologous prime-boost vaccination with viral vectors expressing Pvs25. Significant blockade was observed when combining both platforms, achieving a 74% and 68% reduction in intensity and prevalence, respectively. This observation was confirmed by direct membrane feeding on field P. vivax samples, resulting in reductions in intensity/prevalence of 85.3% and 25.5%. These data demonstrate the potential of this vaccine candidate and support the feasibility of expressing Plasmodium antigens in a plant-based system for the production of TBVs, while demonstrating the potential advantages of combining multiple vaccine delivery systems to maximize efficacy.

Expression in plants and immunogenicity of plant virus-based experimental rabies vaccine

A new approach to the production and delivery of vaccine antigens is the use of engineered amino virus-based vectors. A chimeric peptide containing antigenic determinants from rabies virus glycoprotein (G protein) (amino acids 253-275) and nucleoprotein (N protein) (amino acids 404-418) was PCR-amplified and cloned as a translational fusion product with the alfalfa mosaic virus (AlMV) coat protein (CP). This recombinant CP was expressed in two plant virus-based expression systems. The first one utilized transgenic Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun NN plants providing replicative functions in trans for full-length infectious RNA3 of AlMV (NF1-g24). The second one utilized Nicotiana benthamiana and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) plants using autonomously replicating tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) lacking native CP (Av/A4-g24). Recombinant virus containing the chimeric rabies virus epitope was isolated from infected transgenic N. tabacum cv. Samsun NN plants and used for parenteral immunization of mice. Mice immunized with recombinant virus were protected against challenge infection. Based on the previously demonstrated efficacy of this plant virus-based experimental rabies vaccine when orally administered to mice in virus-infected unprocessed raw spinach leaves, we assessed its efficacy in human volunteers. Three of five volunteers who had previously been immunized against rabies virus with a conventional vaccine specifically responded against the peptide antigen after ingesting spinach leaves infected with the recombinant virus. When rabies virus non-immune individuals were fed the same material, 5/9 demonstrated significant antibody responses to either rabies virus or AlMV. Following a single dose of conventional rabies virus vaccine, three of these individuals showed detectable levels of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies, whereas none of five controls revealed these antibodies. These findings provide clear indication of the potential of the plant virus-based expression systems as supplementary oral booster for rabies vaccinations.

Pathogenesis of Alfalfa mosaic virus in Soybean (Glycine max) and Expression of Chimeric Rabies Peptide in Virus-Infected Soybean Plants

ABSTRACT Infection of soybean (Glycine max) plants inoculated with particles of Alfalfa mosaic virus (AlMV) isolate 425 at 12 days after germination was monitored throughout the life cycle of the plant (vegetative growth, flowering, seed formation, and seed maturation) by western blot analysis of tissue samples. At 8 to 10 days after inoculation, the upper uninoculated leaves showed symptoms of virus infection and accumulation of viral coat protein (CP). Virus CP was detectable in leaves, stem, roots, seedpods, and seed coat up to 45 days postinoculation (dpi), but only in the seedpod and seed coat at 65 dpi. No virus accumulation was detected in embryos and cotyledons at any time during infection, and no seed transmission of virus was observed. Soybean plants inoculated with recombinant AlMV passaged from upper uninoculated leaves of infected plants showed accumulation of full-length chimeric AlMV CP containing rabies antigen in systemically infected leaves and seed coat. These results suggest the potential usefulness of plants and plant viruses as vehicles for producing proteins of biomedical importance in a safe and inexpensive manner. Moreover, even the soybean seed coat, treated as waste tissue during conventional processing for oil and other products, may be utilized for the expression of value-added proteins.

The green revolution: plants as heterologous expression vectors

Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated gene transfer into the plant genome laid the groundwork for new procedures aimed at crop improvement, including resistance to pathogens, increased product yield, modified oil content, and resistance to environmental stress conditions. New developments in molecular plant virology have led to the generation of plant-based systems for transient expression of foreign sequences using plant virus vectors. In the last decade both transgenic plants and plant virus vectors have been used increasingly to produce a wide range of biomedical reagents, including vaccine antigens, in a safe and economically feasible manner. These new plant-based technologies have enormous potential for a variety of applications, including the oral delivery of vaccine antigens.

Human respiratory syncytial virus vaccine antigen produced in plants

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the primary cause of respiratory infection in infants worldwide. Currently there is no available vaccine, although studies in animal models have demonstrated protective immunity induced by an epitope of the RSV G-protein representing amino acids 174-187. Two peptides containing amino acids 174-187 of the G-protein of the human RSV A2 strain (NF1-RSV/172-187 and NF2-RSV/170-191) were separately engineered as translational fusions with the alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein and individually expressed in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun NN plants through virus infection. RSV G-protein peptides were expressed in infected plant tissues at significant levels within 2 wk of inoculation and purified as part of recombinant alfalfa mosaic virions. BALB/c mice immunized intraperitoneally with three doses of the purified recombinant viruses showed high levels of serum antibody specific for RSV G-protein and were protected against infection with RSV Long strain.

A plant-derived edible vaccine against hepatitis B virus

The infectious hepatitis B virus represents 42 nm spherical double-shelled particles. However, analysis of blood from hepatitis B virus carriers revealed the presence of smaller 22 nm particles consisting of a viral envelope surface protein. These particles are highly immunogenic and have been used in the design of hepatitis B virus vaccine produced in yeast. Upon expression in yeast, these proteins form virus-like particles that are used for parenteral immunization. Therefore, the DNA fragment encoding hepatitis B virus surface antigen was introduced into Agrobacterium tumerifacience LBA4404 and used to obtain transgenic lupin (Lupinus luteus L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cv. Burpee Bibb expressing envelope surface protein. Mice that were fed the transgenic lupin tissue developed significant levels of hepatitis B virus-specific antibodies. Human volunteers, fed with transgenic lettuce plants expressing hepatitis B virus surface antigen, developed specific serum-IgG response to plant produced protein.

Plant viral vectors based on tobamoviruses

The potential of plant virus-based transient expression vectors is substantial. One objective is the production of large quantities of foreign peptides or proteins. At least one commercial group (Biosource Technologies) is producing large quantities of product in the field, has built factories to process truck-loads of material and soon expects to market virus-generated products. In the laboratory, large amounts of protein have been produced for structural or biochemical analyses. An important aspect of producing large amounts of a protein or peptide is to make the product easily purifiable. This has been done by attaching peptides or proteins to easily purified units such as virion particles or by exporting proteins to the apoplast so that purification begins with a highly enriched product. For plant molecular biology, virus-based vectors have been useful in identifying previously unknown genes by overexpression or silencing or by expression in different genotypes. Also, foreign peptides fused to virions are being used as immunogens for development of antisera for experimental use or as injected or edible vaccines for medical use. As with liposomes and microcapsules, plant cells and plant viruses are also expected to provide natural protection for the passage of antigen through the gastrointestinal tract. Perhaps the greatest advantage of plant virus-based transient expression vectors is their host, plants. For the production of large amounts of commercial products, plants are one of the most economical and productive sources of biomass. They also present the advantages of lack of contamination with animal pathogens, relative ease of genetic manipulation and the presence eukaryotic protein modification machinery.

Expression of alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein in tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) deficient in the production of its native coat protein supports long-distance movement of a chimeric TMV

Alfalfa mosaic virus (AlMV) coat protein is involved in systemic infection of host plants, and a specific mutation in this gene prevents the virus from moving into the upper uninoculated leaves. The coat protein also is required for different viral functions during early and late infection. To study the role of the coat protein in long-distance movement of AlMV independent of other vital functions during virus infection, we cloned the gene encoding the coat protein of AlMV into a tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)-based vector Av. This vector is deficient in long-distance movement and is limited to locally inoculated leaves because of the lack of native TMV coat protein. Expression of AlMV coat protein, directed by the subgenomic promoter of TMV coat protein in Av, supported systemic infection with the chimeric virus in Nicotiana benthamiana, Nicotiana tabacum MD609, and Spinacia oleracea. The host range of TMV was extended to include spinach as a permissive host. Here we report the alteration of a host range by incorporating genetic determinants from another virus.

Expression and assembly of a full-length monoclonal antibody in plants using a plant virus vector

We have used a tobacco mosaic virus-based vector to express monoclonal antibody (mAb) CO17-1A, directed to a colon cancer antigen, in plants. Genes encoding heavy and light chains of this antibody were introduced independently into the tobacco mosaic virus vector. Upon co-infection of Nicotiana benthamiana plants with both recombinant virus constructs, genes for heavy and light chains were expressed and assembled into a full-length antibody. A functional plant-expressed antibody was detected by ELISA and immunoblot in extracts from systemically infected leaves. This is the first report on the use of a plant virus vector to express and assemble a full-size antibody.

Viral coat protein peptides with limited sequence homology bind similar domains of alfalfa mosaic virus and tobacco streak virus RNAs

An unusual and distinguishing feature of alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) and ilarviruses such as tobacco streak virus (TSV) is that the viral coat protein is required to activate the early stages of viral RNA replication, a phenomenon known as genome activation. AMV-TSV coat protein homology is limited; however, they are functionally interchangeable in activating virus replication. For example, TSV coat protein will activate AMV RNA replication and vice versa. Although AMV and TSV coat proteins have little obvious amino acid homology, we recently reported that they share an N-terminal RNA binding consensus sequence (Ansel-McKinney et al., EMBO J. 15:5077-5084, 1996). Here, we biochemically compare the binding of chemically synthesized peptides that include the consensus RNA binding sequence and lysine-rich (AMV) or arginine-rich (TSV) environment to 3'-terminal TSV and AMV RNA fragments. The arginine-rich TSV coat protein peptide binds viral RNA with lower affinity than the lysine-rich AMV coat protein peptides; however, the ribose moieties protected from hydroxyl radical attack by the two different peptides are localized in the same area of the predicted RNA structures. When included in an infectious inoculum, both AMV and TSV 3'-terminal RNA fragments inhibited AMV RNA replication, while variant RNAs unable to bind coat protein did not affect replication significantly. The data suggest that RNA binding and genome activation functions may reside in the consensus RNA binding sequence that is apparently unique to AMV and ilarvirus coat proteins.

Immunization against rabies with plant-derived antigen

We previously demonstrated that recombinant plant virus particles containing a chimeric peptide representing two rabies virus epitopes stimulate virus neutralizing antibody synthesis in immunized mice. We show here that mice immunized intraperitoneally or orally (by gastric intubation or by feeding on virus-infected spinach leaves) with engineered plant virus particles containing rabies antigen mount a local and systemic immune response. After the third dose of antigen, given intraperitoneally, 40% of the mice were protected against challenge infection with a lethal dose of rabies virus. Oral administration of the antigen stimulated serum IgG and IgA synthesis and ameliorated the clinical signs caused by intranasal infection with an attenuated rabies virus strain.

Functional significance of three basic N-terminal amino acids of alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein

Infection of tobacco protoplasts with mutant alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) RNAs indicated that three basic amino acids in the N-terminus of AMV coat protein are important for the biological activity of the coat protein in the beginning of infection. Substitution of alanines for lysines at position 14 or 17 in the coat protein resulted in a 5- or 10-fold reduction in the activity of the protein, respectively. However, substitution of alanine for arginine at position 18 entirely abolished activity. Arginine 18 was also required for the coat protein to bind to the 3' noncoding region of the virus RNA in vitro, whereas lysine 14 or 17 was not required. Thus, these results indicate that arginine 18 is essential for the activity of the coat protein in early infection and that binding of the coat protein to AMV RNA correlates with activity.

The structure of alfalfa mosaic virus capsid protein assembled as a T=1 icosahedral particle at 4.0-A resolution

K. Fukuyama, S. S. Abdel-Meguid, J. E. Johnson, and M. G. Rossmann (J. Mol. Biol. 167:873-984, 1983) reported the structure of alfalfa mosaic virus assembled from the capsid protein as a T=1 icosahedral empty particle at 4.5-A resolution. The information contained in the structure included the particle size, protein shell thickness, presence of wide holes at the icosahedral fivefold axes, and a proposal that the capsid protein adopts a beta-barrel structure. In the present work, the X-ray diffraction data of Fukuyama et al. as well as the data subsequently collected by I. Fita, Y. Hata, and M. G. Rossmann (unpublished) were reprocessed to 4.0-A resolution, and the structure was solved by molecular replacement. The current structure allowed the tracing of the polypeptide chain of the capsid protein confirming the beta-sandwich fold and provides information on intersubunit interactions in the particle. However, it was not possible to definitively assign the amino acid sequence to the side chain density at 4-A resolution. The particle structure was also determined by cryoelectron microscopy and image reconstruction methods and found to be in excellent agreement with the X-ray model.

Antigens produced in plants by infection with chimeric plant viruses immunize against rabies virus and HIV-1

The coat protein (CP) of alfalfa mosaic virus was used as a carrier molecule to express antigenic peptides from rabies virus and HIV. The antigens were separately cloned into the reading frame of alfalfa mosaic virus CP and placed under the control of the subgenomic promoter of tobacco mosaic virus CP in the 30BRz vector. The in vitro transcripts of recombinant virus with sequences encoding the antigenic peptides were synthesized from DNA constructs and used to inoculate tobacco plants. The plant-produced protein (virus particles) was purified and used for immunization of mice. Both antigens elicited specific virus-neutralizing antibodies in immunized mice.

Purification, characterization, assembly and crystallization of assembled alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein expressed in Escherichia coli

The coast protein of alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli as a fusion protein containing a 37 amino acid extension with a (His)6 region for affinity purification. About half of the expressed recombinant coat protein (rCP) was soluble upon extraction and half was insoluble in inclusion bodies. Western blot analysis confirmed the identity of the rCP and protoplast infectivity assays indicated that the rCP was biologically active in an early event of AMV infection, called genome activation. The rCP assembled into T = 1 empty icosahedral particles, as described previously for native coat protein. Empty particles formed hexagonal crystals that diffracted X-rays to 5.5 A resolution. The crystals of trypsin-treated particles of rCP appear to be isomorphous with crystals of trypsin-treated particles of native coat protein, Spherical particles containing RNA assembled when the rCP was combined with in vitro transcripts of AMV RNA4, the smallest naturally encapsidated AMV RNA. Bacilliform particles that resembled native virions assembled when the rCP was combined with transcripts of RNA1, the largest genomic RNA.

High-affinity RNA-binding domains of alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein are not required for coat protein-mediated resistance

A virus-based vector was used for the transient expression of the alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein (CP) gene in protoplasts and plants. The accumulation of wild-type CP conferred strong protection against subsequent alfalfa mosaic virus infection, enabling the efficacy of CP mutants to be determined without developing transgenic plants. Expression of the CP mRNA alone without CP accumulation conferred weaker protection against infection. The activity of the N-terminal mutant CPs in protection did not correlate with their activities in genome activation. The activity of a C-terminal mutant suggested that encapsidation did not have a role in protection. Our results indicate that interaction of the CP with alfalfa mosaic virus RNA is not important in protection, thereby leaving open the possibility that interactions with host factors lead to protection.