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Kim JR, Thelusmond JR, Albright VC, Chai Y. Exploring structure-activity relationships for polymer biodegradability by microorganisms. Sci Total Environ 2023:164338. [PMID: 37211122 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Research on the environmental biodegradation or microbial biodegradation of polymers has substantially increased recently due to growing demand for biodegradable polymers for certain applications. Environmental biodegradation of a polymer depends on the intrinsic biodegradability of the polymer and the characteristics of the receiving environment. The intrinsic biodegradability of a polymer is determined by the chemical structure and resulting physical properties (e.g., glass transition temperature, melting temperature, modulus of elasticity, crystallinity, and crystal structure) of the polymer. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) on biodegradability have been well-established for discrete (non-polymeric) organic chemicals, but not for polymers due to the absence of adequate biodegradability data based on consistent and standardized biodegradation tests with appropriate characterization and reporting of the polymers tested. This review summarizes empirical structure-activity relationships (SARs) for biodegradability of polymers in laboratory studies involving various environmental matrices. In general, polyolefins with carbon-carbon chain are not biodegradable, while polymers containing labile bonds such as ester, ether, amide, or glycosidic bonds in their polymer chain may be favorable for biodegradation. Under a univariate scenario, polymers with higher molecular weight, higher crosslinking, lower water solubility, higher degree of substitution (i.e., higher average number of substituted functional groups per monomer unit), and higher crystallinity may result in reduced biodegradability. This review paper also highlights some of the challenges that hamper QSAR development for polymer biodegradability and stresses the need for better characterization of polymer structures used in biodegradation studies and emphasizes the necessity for consistent testing conditions for the ease of cross-comparison and quantitative modeling analysis during future QSAR development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonrae Roger Kim
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI 48674, USA
| | - Jean-Rene Thelusmond
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI 48674, USA
| | - Vurtice C Albright
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI 48674, USA
| | - Yunzhou Chai
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI 48674, USA.
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Barbon SM, Carter MCD, Yin L, Whaley CM, Albright VC, Tecklenburg RE. Synthesis and Biodegradation Studies of Low-Dispersity Poly(Acrylic Acid). Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2100773. [PMID: 35271740 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) is produced on an industrial scale and widely-used in applications such as personal care products and cleaning formulations that end up "down-the-drain." Relatively high molecular weight PAA is considered poorly biodegradable, but little is known about the biodegradability of low molecular weight PAA at the wastewater treatment plant according to current regulatory and industrial OECD standards. We report the synthesis, separation, and characterization of a series of ultralow dispersity PAA oligomers (i.e., Đ <1.10) in the molecular weight range Mn ∼ 350-1200 Da and the results of biodegradability testing. Miniaturized, high-throughput screening studies in a parallel respirometer revealed a strong trend towards lower biodegradation at higher molecular weight; these results were confirmed and expanded using standardized method OECD 301F. Biodegradability reached ∼40% at Mn = 380 Da, ∼26% at Mn = 770 Da, and ∼17% at Mn = 1190 Da for discrete polyacid oligomers. These data not only shed light on potential biodegradation mechanisms for linear PAA, but also may inspire the future design of biodegradable PAA-containing macromolecules. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M Barbon
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, 633 Washington, Midland, MI, 48642, USA
| | - Matthew C D Carter
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, 400 Arcola Road, Collegeville, PA, 19426, USA
| | - Ligeng Yin
- Home and Personal Care, The Dow Chemical Company, 400 Arcola Road, Collegeville, PA, 19426, USA
| | - C Matthew Whaley
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, 633 Washington, Midland, MI, 48642, USA
| | - Vurtice C Albright
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, MI, 48674, USA
| | - Ron E Tecklenburg
- Core Research and Development, The Dow Chemical Company, 633 Washington, Midland, MI, 48642, USA
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Abstract
The environmental fate of polymers has attracted growing attention in the academic, industrial, and regulatory communities as well as in the general public as global production and use of polymers continue to increase. Biodegradable polymers especially have drawn significant interest. Polymer biodegradation literature published over the past decade was reviewed to compare test methods commonly used for evaluating polymer biodegradation, and to identify key areas for improvement. This paper examines key aspects of study design for polymer biodegradation such as physical form of the test material, use of appropriate reference materials, selection of test systems, and advantages and limitations of various analytical methods for determining biodegradation. Those aspects of study design are critical for determining the outcome of polymer biodegradation studies. This paper identifies several knowledge gaps for assessing polymer biodegradation and provides four key recommendations. (1) develop standardized guidelines for each specific environmental matrix (compost, activated sludge, marine environments, etc.) that can used for all polymer types, (2) develop accelerated biodegradation test methods and predictive methods for polymers, (3) develop an integrated analytical approach using multiple simple, and effective analytical methods, and (4) develop new frameworks for assessing the overall persistence of polymers and are accepted by the greater scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, Michigan 48674, United States
| | - Yunzhou Chai
- Toxicology and Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, 1803 Building, Midland, Michigan 48674, United States
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Ott A, Martin TJ, Acharya K, Lyon DY, Robinson N, Rowles B, Snape JR, Still I, Whale GF, Albright VC, Bäverbäck P, Best N, Commander R, Eickhoff C, Finn S, Hidding B, Maischak H, Sowders KA, Taruki M, Walton HE, Wennberg AC, Davenport RJ. Multi-laboratory Validation of a New Marine Biodegradation Screening Test for Chemical Persistence Assessment. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:4210-4220. [PMID: 32162906 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Current biodegradation screening tests are not specifically designed for persistence assessment of chemicals, often show high inter- and intra-test variability, and often give false negative biodegradation results. Based on previous studies and recommendations, an international ring test involving 13 laboratories validated a new test method for marine biodegradation with a focus on improving the reliability of screening to determine the environmental degradation potential of chemicals. The new method incorporated increased bacterial cell concentrations to better represent the microbial diversity; a chemical is likely to be exposed in the sampled environments and ran beyond 60 days, which is the half-life threshold for chemical persistence in the marine environment. The new test provided a more reliable and less variable characterization of the biodegradation behavior of five reference chemicals (sodium benzoate, triethanolamine, 4-nitrophenol, anionic polyacrylamide, and pentachlorophenol), with respect to REACH and OSPAR persistence thresholds, than the current OECD 306 test. The proposed new method provides a cost-effective screening test for non-persistence that could streamline chemical regulation and reduce the cost and animal welfare implications of further higher tier testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Ott
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy J Martin
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Kishor Acharya
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Delina Y Lyon
- Shell Oil Company, 150 N. Dairy Ashford Rd., Houston, Texas 77079, United States
| | - Nik Robinson
- European Oilfield Specialty Chemicals Association (EOSCA), Aberdeen AB11 6YQ, United Kingdom
| | - Bob Rowles
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, United Kingdom
| | - Jason R Snape
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
- AstraZeneca Global Environment, Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TF, United Kingdom
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Campus, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Still
- European Oilfield Specialty Chemicals Association (EOSCA), Aberdeen AB11 6YQ, United Kingdom
| | - Graham F Whale
- Risk Science Team, Shell International Ltd., 4 York Road, London SE1 7NA, United Kingdom
| | - Vurtice C Albright
- Toxicology & Environmental Research & Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan 48674, United States
| | - Petra Bäverbäck
- Schlumberger, Sandslikroken 140, Sandsli, Bergen 5254, Norway
| | - Nicola Best
- Covance CRS Research Limited, Shardlow Business Park, London Road, Derby DE72 2GD, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth Commander
- Scymaris Ltd., Brixham Laboratory, Brixham TQ5 8BA, United Kingdom
| | - Curtis Eickhoff
- Nautilus Environmental Company, Inc., Burnaby, BC V5A 4N7, Canada
| | - Sarah Finn
- National Oilwell Varco (NOV), Flotta, Stromness, Orkney, KW16 3NP, United Kingdom
| | - Björn Hidding
- BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Straße 38, Ludwigshafen am Rhein 67056, Germany
| | - Heiko Maischak
- Noack Laboratorien GmbH, Käthe-Paulus-Straße 1, Sarstedt, Hildesheim 31157, Germany
| | - Katherine A Sowders
- Baker Hughes - Environmental Services Group, 369 Marshall Ave., Webster Groves, Missouri 63119, United States
| | - Masanori Taruki
- Chemicals Evaluation and Research Institute, Japan, Kurume (CERI Kurume), 3-2-7 Miyanojin, Kurume-shi, Fukuoka 839-0801, Japan
| | - Helen E Walton
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, United Kingdom
| | | | - Russell J Davenport
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
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Albright VC, Wong CR, Hellmich RL, Coats JR. Dissipation of double-stranded RNA in aquatic microcosms. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017; 36:1249-1253. [PMID: 27731520 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Silencing genes of a pest with double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a promising new pest management technology. As part of the environmental risk assessment for dsRNA-based products, the environmental fate and the potential for adverse effects to on-target organisms should be characterized. In the present study, a nonbioactive dsRNA was spiked into the water column of a water and sediment microcosm to mimic drift from a spray application run off of unbound dsRNA or transport of plant tissues. Dissipation of dsRNA in the water column and partitioning into sediment was determined. The dsRNA rapidly dissipated in the water column and was below the limit of detection after 96 h. The levels detected in the sediment were not significant and may indicate rapid degradation in the water column prior to partitioning to sediment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1249-1253. © 2016 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Colin R Wong
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Richard L Hellmich
- Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Joel R Coats
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
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Albright VC, Hellmich RL, Coats JR. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detection and bioactivity of Cry1Ab protein fragments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016; 35:3101-3112. [PMID: 27206791 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The continuing use of transgenic crops has led to an increased interest in the fate of insecticidal crystalline (Cry) proteins in the environment. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have emerged as the preferred detection method for Cry proteins in environmental matrices. Concerns exist that ELISAs are capable of detecting fragments of Cry proteins, which may lead to an overestimation of the concentration of these proteins in the environment. Five model systems were used to generate fragments of the Cry1Ab protein, which were then analyzed by ELISAs and bioassays. Fragments from 4 of the model systems were not detectable by ELISA and did not retain bioactivity. Fragments from the proteinase K model system were detectable by ELISA and retained bioactivity. In most cases, ELISAs appear to provide an accurate estimation of the amount of Cry proteins in the environment, as detectable fragments retained bioactivity and nondetectable fragments did not retain bioactivity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:3101-3112. © 2016 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Richard L Hellmich
- Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa
| | - Joel R Coats
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
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Albright VC, Hellmich RL, Coats JR. Development of a Model System Approach for Generating Fragments of the Cry1Ab Protein. J AOAC Int 2016; 99:content-jaoacint.150229. [PMID: 27087680 DOI: 10.5740/jaoacint.15-0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of transgenic crops expressing one or more crystal (Cry) proteins for insect management has grown dramatically since their introduction nearly 2 decades ago. However, many questions surrounding the environmental fate of these proteins still persist. One area of particular interest is the possible detection of Cry protein fragments by the antibodies used in ELISA kits. A model system approach is used to generate environmentally relevant fragments by simulating conditions and digestive enzymes that are known to exist in environments in which Cry proteins may be present. Seven different types of model systems were screened for their ability to generate fragments of the Cry1Ab protein; five of these model systems reliably generated Cry1Ab fragments. These fragments were analyzed in a subsequent study to determine whether the fragments were still detectable by ELISA and whether they retained any bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Iowa State University, Department of Entomology, Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, 115 Insectary, Ames, IA 50011
| | - Richard L Hellmich
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research Unit, 110 Genetics Lab, Ames, IA 50011
| | - Joel R Coats
- Iowa State University, Department of Entomology, Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, 116 Insectary, Ames, IA 50011
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8
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Abstract
The widespread use of Cry proteins in insecticide formulations and transgenic crops for insect control has led to an increased interest in the environmental fate of these proteins. Although several detection methods are available to monitor the fate of Cry proteins in the environment, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have emerged as the preferred detection method, due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of use, and rapid results. Validation of ELISAs is necessary to ensure accurate measurements of Cry protein concentrations in the environment. Validation methodology has been extensively researched and published for the areas of sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and precision; however, cross validation of ELISA results has been studied to a lesser extent. This review discusses the use of ELISAs for detection of Cry proteins in environmental samples and validation of ELISAs and introduces cross validation. The state of Cry protein environmental fate research is considered through a critical review of published literature to identify areas where the use of validation protocols can be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University , 110 Insectary, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Richard L Hellmich
- Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture , 110 Genetics Laboratory, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Joel R Coats
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University , 110 Insectary, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
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Albright VC, Coats JR. Disposition of atrazine metabolites following uptake and degradation of atrazine in switchgrass. Int J Phytoremediation 2014; 16:62-72. [PMID: 24912215 DOI: 10.1080/15226514.2012.759528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Extensive use of the agricultural herbicide atrazine has led to contamination of numerous ground and surface water bodies. Research has shown that it can have a variety of negative impacts on numerous non-target organisms in the environment. Phytoremediation is one strategy that has been studied to remove atrazine contamination. This paper investigates the hypothesis that switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) can exude metabolites of atrazine after uptake and degradation, which has been suggested by prior research. Pots planted with switchgrass were treated with a 4 ppm solution of atrazine spiked with [14C]atrazine. After 4 days, switchgrass plants were transplanted to new pots with fresh sand. Four days later, the pots were sacrificed, and sand and plant samples were extracted. Plant and sand samples were analyzed for the presence of atrazine and its major metabolites. The percentage of radiotracer remaining as the parent atrazine was observed to decrease over the course of the study while the percentages of the metabolites were observed to increase. The presence of the metabolite cyanuric acid in a switchgrass phytoremediation system is reported for the first time.
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Albright VC, Murphy IJ, Anderson JA, Coats JR. Fate of atrazine in switchgrass-soil column system. Chemosphere 2013; 90:1847-1853. [PMID: 23102724 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.09.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2012] [Revised: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Atrazine, a broad-leaf herbicide, has been used widely to control weeds in corn and other crops for several decades and its extensive used has led to widespread contamination of soils and water bodies. Phytoremediation with switchgrass and other native prairie grasses is one strategy that has been suggested to lessen the impact of atrazine in the environment. The goal of this study is to characterize: (1) the uptake of atrazine into above-ground switchgrass biomass; and (2) the degradation and transformation of atrazine over time. A fate study was performed using mature switchgrass columns treated with an artificially-created agricultural runoff containing 16 ppm atrazine. Soil samples and above-ground biomass samples were taken from each column and analyzed for the presence of atrazine and its chlorinated metabolites. Levels of atrazine in both soil and plant material were detectable through the first 2 weeks of the experiment but were below the limit of detection by Day 21. Levels of deethylatrazine (DEA) and didealkylatrazine (DDA) were detected in soil and plant tissue intermittently over the course of the study, deisopropylatrazine (DIA) was not detected at any time point. A radiolabel study using [(14)C]atrazine was undertaken to observe uptake and degradation of atrazine with more sensitivity. Switchgrass columns were treated with a 4 ppm atrazine solution, and above-ground biomass samples were collected and analyzed using HPLC and liquid scintillation counting. Atrazine, DEA, and DIA were detected as soon as 1d following treatment. Two other metabolites, DDA and cyanuric acid, were detected at later time points, while hydroxyatrazine was not detected at all. The percentage of atrazine was observed to decrease over the course of the study while the percentages of the metabolites increased. Switchgrass plants appeared to exhibit a threshold in regard to the amount of atrazine taken up by the plants; levels of atrazine in leaf material peaked between Days 3 and 4 in both studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vurtice C Albright
- Pesticide Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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