Enhanced Photocharacteristics by Fermi Level Modulating in Sb2 Te3 /Bi2 Se3 Topological Insulator p-n Junction

Topological insulators have recently received attention in optoelectronic devices because of their high mobility and broadband absorption resulting from their topological surface states. In particular, theoretical and experimental studies have emerged that can improve the spin generation efficiency in a topological insulator-based p-n junction structure called a TPNJ, drawing attention in optospintronics. Recently, research on implementing the TPNJ structure is conducted; however, studies on the device characteristics of the TPNJ structure are still insufficient. In this study, the TPNJ structure is effectively implemented without intermixing by controlling the annealing temperature, and the photocharacteristics appearing in the TPNJ structure are investigated using a cross-pattern that can compare the characteristics in a single device. Enhanced photo characteristics are observed for the TPNJ structure. An optical pump Terahertz probe and a physical property measurement system are used to confirm the cause of improved photoresponsivity. Consequently, the photocharacteristics are improved owing to the change in the absorption mechanism and surface transport channel caused by the Fermi level shift in the TPNJ structure.

Emergence of threefold symmetric helical photocurrents in epitaxial low twinned Bi2Se3

We present evidence of a strong circular photon drag effect (PDE) in topological insulators (TIs) through the observation of helicity-dependent topological photocurrents with threefold rotational symmetry using THz spectroscopy in epitaxially-grown Bi2Se3 with reduced crystallographic twinning. We establish how twinned domains introduce competing nonlinear optical (NLO) responses inherent to the crystal structure that obscure geometry-sensitive optical processes through the introduction of a spurious mirror symmetry. Minimizing the twinning defect reveals strong NLO response currents whose magnitude and direction depend on the alignment of the excitation to the crystal axes and follow the threefold rotational symmetry of the crystal. Notably, photocurrents arising from helical light reverse direction for left/right circular polarizations and maintain a strong azimuthal dependence-a result uniquely attributable to the circular PDE, where the photon momentum acts as an applied in-plane field stationary in the laboratory frame. Our results demonstrate new levels of control over the magnitude and direction of photocurrents in TIs and that the study of single-domain films is crucial to reveal hidden phenomena that couple topological order and crystal symmetries.

Electronic Structure and Transport Properties of Bi2Te3 and Bi2Se3 Single Crystals

The electrical resistivity and the Hall effect of topological insulator Bi2Te3 and Bi2Se3 single crystals were studied in the temperature range from 4.2 to 300 K and in magnetic fields up to 10 T. Theoretical calculations of the electronic structure of these compounds were carried out in density functional approach, taking into account spin-orbit coupling and crystal structure data for temperatures of 5, 50 and 300 K. A clear correlation was found between the density of electronic states at the Fermi level and the current carrier concentration. In the case of Bi2Te3, the density of states at the Fermi level and the current carrier concentration increase with increasing temperature, from 0.296 states eV-1 cell-1 (5 K) to 0.307 states eV-1 cell-1 (300 K) and from 0.9 × 1019 cm-3 (5 K) to 2.6 × 1019 cm-3 (300 K), respectively. On the contrary, in the case of Bi2Se3, the density of states decreases with increasing temperature, from 0.201 states eV-1 cell-1 (5 K) to 0.198 states eV-1 cell-1 (300 K), and, as a consequence, the charge carrier concentration also decreases from 2.94 × 1019 cm-3 (5 K) to 2.81 × 1019 cm-3 (300 K).

High-Performance Alkali Metal Ion Storage in Bi2Se3 Enabled by Suppression of Polyselenide Shuttling Through Intrinsic Sb-Substitution Engineering

Bismuth selenide holds great promise as a kind of conversion-alloying-type anode material for alkali metal ion storage because of its layered structure with large interlayer spacing and high theoretical specific capacity. Nonetheless, its commercial development has been significantly hammered by the poor kinetics, severe pulverization, and polyselenide shuttle during the charge/discharge process. Herein, Sb-substitution and carbon encapsulation strategies are simultaneously employed to synthesize Sb_xBi_2-xSe₃ nanoparticles decorated on Ti₃C₂T_x MXene with encapsulation of N-doped carbon (Sb_xBi_2-xSe₃/MX⊂NC) as anodes for alkali metal ion storage. The superb electrochemical performances could be assigned to the cationic displacement of Sb³⁺ that effectively inhibits the shuttling effect of soluble polyselenides and the confinement engineering that alleviates the volume change during the sodiation/desodiation process. When used as anodes for sodium- and lithium-ion batteries, the Sb_0.4Bi_1.6Se₃/MX⊂NC composite exhibits superior electrochemical performances. This work offers valuable guidance to suppress the shuttling of polyselenides/polysulfides in high-performance alkali metal ion batteries with conversion/alloying-type transition metal sulfide/selenide anode materials.

Exploring Material Properties and Device Output Performance of a Miniaturized Flexible Thermoelectric Generator Using Scalable Synthesis of Bi2Se3 Nanoflakes

Environmental heat-to-electric energy conversion presents a promising solution for powering sensors in wearable and portable devices. However, the availability of near-room temperature thermoelectric (TE) materials is highly limited, posing a significant challenge in this field. Bi₂Se₃, as a room-temperature TE material, has attracted much attention. Here, we demonstrate a large-scale synthesis of Bi₂Se₃ nanoflakes used for the microflexible TE generator. A high-performance micro-TE generator module, utilizing a flexible printed circuit, has been designed and fabricated through the process of screen printing. The TE generator configuration comprises five pairs of PN TE legs. The p-type TE leg utilizes commercially available Sb₂Te₃ powder, while the n-type TE leg employs Bi₂Se₃ nanoflakes synthesized in this study. For comparative purposes, we also incorporate commercially available Bi₂Se₃ powder as an alternative n-type TE leg. The optimal performance of the single-layer microflexible TE generator, employing Bi₂Se₃ nanoflakes as the active material, is achieved when operating at a temperature differential of 109.5 K, the open-circuit voltage (V_OC) is 0.11 V, the short circuit current (I_SC) is 0.34 mA, and the maximum output power (P_MAX) is 9.5 μW, much higher than the generator consisting of commercial Bi₂Se₃ powder, which is expected to provide an energy supply for flexible electronic devices.

Integration of Self-Passivated Topological Electrodes for Advanced 2D Optoelectronic Devices

With the rapid development of two-dimensional semiconductor technology, the inevitable chemical disorder at a typical metal-semiconductor interface has become an increasingly serious problem that degrades the performance of 2D semiconductor optoelectronic devices. Herein, defect-free van der Waals contacts have been achieved by utilizing topological Bi₂ Se₃ as the electrodes. Such clean and atomically sharp contacts avoid the consumption of photogenerated carriers at the interface, enabling a markedly boosted sensitivity as compared to counterpart devices with directly deposited metal electrodes. Typically, the device with 2D WSe₂ channel realizes a high responsivity of 20.5 A W^-1 , an excellent detectivity of 2.18 × 10¹²  Jones, and a fast rise/decay time of 41.66/38.81 ms. Furthermore, high-resolution visible-light imaging capability of the WSe₂ device is demonstrated, indicating its promising application prospect in future optoelectronic systems. More inspiringly, the topological electrodes are universally applicable to other 2D semiconductor channels, including WS₂ and InSe, suggesting its broad applicability. These results open fascinating opportunities for the development of high-performance electronics and optoelectronics.

Enhanced Photoresponse of High Crystalline Bi2Se3 Thin-Films Using Patterned Substrates

High-quality Bi₂Se₃ thin films with topological insulating properties at room temperature have recently attracted much attention as one of the promising materials for realizing innovative electronic and optoelectronic devices. Here, we report the high crystallinity growth of Bi₂Se₃ thin films on a patterned sapphire substrate (PSS) by using a vapor-phase transport deposition with minimizing thermal dissociation of Se atoms vaporized in Bi₂Se₃ powder. This PSS not only reduces the large dislocation of heterogeneously grown Bi₂Se₃ on a sapphire substrate but also induces enhanced light absorption in the visible to near-infrared (IR) ranges compared to Bi₂Se₃ on planar sapphire substrates. Thus, the Bi₂Se₃ thin film laterally grown on the PSS reveals uniform surface properties and high crystallinity in the rhombohedral lattice phase with a full width at half maximum of 0.06° for the XRD (003) peak. Also, the photoresponse of the fabricated IR conversion device using Bi₂Se₃/PSS heterostructure exhibits excellent performance and high reliability with no degradation after continuous switching. As a result, the device constructed with the Bi₂Se₃/PSS exhibits one order of magnitude higher NIR induced-photocurrent and 1-2 orders of magnitude faster photo-switching than that with Bi₂Se₃/Al₂O₃. Such an enhancement in the device performance of Bi₂Se₃/PSS is confirmed by the increased absorption spectra in visible and NIR ranges and the improved light absorption distribution.

Ion-Induced Lateral Damage in the Focused Ion Beam Patterning of Topological Insulator Bi2Se3 Thin Films

Focused Ion Beam patterning has become a widely applied technique in the last few decades in the micro- and nanofabrication of quantum materials, representing an important advantage in terms of resolution and versatility. However, ion irradiation can trigger undesired effects on the target material, most of them related to the damage created by the impinging ions that can severely affect the crystallinity of the sample, compromising the application of Focused Ion Beam to the fabrication of micro- and nanosized systems. We focus here on the case of Bi₂Se₃, a topological material whose unique properties rely on its crystallinity. In order to study the effects of ion irradiation on the structure of Bi₂Se₃, we irradiated with Ga⁺ ions the full width of Hall-bar devices made from thin films of this material, with the purpose of inducing changes in the electrical resistance and characterizing the damage created during the process. The results indicate that a relatively high ion dose is necessary to introduce significant changes in the conduction. This ion dose creates medium-range lateral damage in the structure, manifested through the formation of an amorphous region that can extend laterally up to few hundreds of nanometers beyond the irradiated area. This amorphous material is no longer expected to behave as intrinsic Bi₂Se₃, indicating a spatial limitation for the devices fabricated through this technique.

Construction of Bouquet-like Bi2Se3/Bi2O3@Bi Composites with High Interfacial Charge Separation for the Degradation of Atrazine

Using low-density solar energy in the environment and converting it into chemical energy that can drive the degradation of organic pollutants is considered to be a very promising strategy for solving the problem of environmental pollution. The efficacy of photocatalytic destruction of organic contaminants is nonetheless constrained by the high composite rate of photogenic carriers, insufficient light absorption and utilization impact, and sluggish charge transfer rate. In this work, we created a new type of heterojunction photocatalyst with a spherical Bi₂Se₃/Bi₂O₃@Bi core-shell structure and investigated its degrading properties of organic pollutants in the environment. Interestingly, benefiting from the fast electron transfer capability of the Bi⁰ electron bridge, the charge separation and transfer efficiency between Bi₂Se₃ and Bi₂O₃ is greatly improved. In this photocatalyst, Bi₂Se₃ not only has a photothermal effect to speed up the process of photocatalytic reaction, but also has fast electrical conductivity of topological materials at the surface, which speeds up the transmission efficiency of photogenic carriers. As expected, the removal performance of the Bi₂Se₃/Bi₂O₃@Bi photocatalyst to atrazine is 4.2 and 5.7 times higher than that of the original Bi₂Se₃ and Bi₂O₃. Meanwhile, the best samples Bi₂Se₃/Bi₂O₃@Bi showed 98.7%, 97.8%, 69.4%, 90.6%, 91.2%, 77.2%, 97.7%, and 98.9% removal of ATZ, 2,4-DCP, SMZ, KP, CIP, CBZ, OTC-HCl, and RhB, and 56.8%, 59.1%, 34.6%, 34.5%, 37.1%, 73.9%, and 78.4% mineralization. Through characterization such as XPS and electrochemical workstations, it is proved that the photocatalytic properties of Bi₂Se₃/Bi₂O₃@Bi catalysts are far superior to other materials, and a suitable photocatalytic mechanism is proposed. A novel form of bismuth-based compound photocatalyst is anticipated to be produced as a result of this research in order to address the increasingly critical problem of environmental water pollution in addition to presenting fresh avenues for the creation of adaptable nanomaterials for additional environmental applications.

Interlayer Exciton-Phonon Bound State in Bi2Se3/Monolayer WS2 van der Waals Heterostructures

The ability to assemble layers of two-dimensional (2D) materials to form permutations of van der Waals heterostructures provides significant opportunities in materials design and synthesis. Interlayer interactions can enable desired properties and functionality, and understanding such interactions is essential to that end. Here we report formation of interlayer exciton-phonon bound states in Bi₂Se₃/WS₂ heterostructures, where the Bi₂Se₃ A₁⁽³⁾ surface phonon, a mode particularly susceptible to electron-phonon coupling, is imprinted onto the excitonic emission of the WS₂. The exciton-phonon bound state (or exciton-phonon quasiparticle) presents itself as evenly separated peaks superposed on the WS₂ excitonic photoluminescence spectrum, whose periodic spacing corresponds to the A₁⁽³⁾ surface phonon energy. Low-temperature polarized Raman spectroscopy of Bi₂Se₃ reveals intense surface phonons and local symmetry breaking that allows the A₁⁽³⁾ surface phonon to manifest in otherwise forbidden scattering geometries. Our work advances knowledge of the complex interlayer van der Waals interactions and facilitates technologies that combine the distinctive transport and optical properties from separate materials into one device for possible spintronics, valleytronics, and quantum computing applications.

Towards More Accurate Determination of the Thermoelectric Properties of Bi2Se3 Epifilms by Suspension via Nanomachining Techniques

We report on the characterization of the thermoelectric properties of Bi2Se3 epifilms. MBE-grown Bi2Se3 films on GaAs (111) A are nanomachined with integrated Pt elements serving as local joule heaters, thermometers, and voltage probes. We suspended a 4 µm × 120 µm Bi2Se3 by nanomachining techniques. Specifically, we selectively etched GaAs buffer/substrate layers by citric acid solution followed by a critical point drying method. We found that the self-heating 3ω method is an appropriate technique for the accurate measurement of the thermal conductivity of suspended Bi2Se3. The measured thermoelectric properties of 200 nm thick Bi2Se3 at room temperature were κ=1.95 W/m K, S=−102.8 μV/K, σ = 75,581 S/m and the figure of merit was ZT=0.12. The study introduces a method to measure thermal conductivity accurately by suspending thin films.

Nanometric Moiré Stripes on the Surface of Bi2Se3 Topological Insulator

Mismatch between adjacent atomic layers in low-dimensional materials, generating moiré patterns, has recently emerged as a suitable method to tune electronic properties by inducing strong electron correlations and generating novel phenomena. Beyond graphene, van der Waals structures such as three-dimensional (3D) topological insulators (TIs) appear as ideal candidates for the study of these phenomena due to the weak coupling between layers. Here we discover and investigate the origin of 1D moiré stripes on the surface of Bi₂Se₃ TI thin films and nanobelts. Scanning tunneling microscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy reveal a unidirectional strained top layer, in the range 14-25%, with respect to the relaxed bulk structure, which cannot be ascribed to the mismatch with the substrate lattice but rather to strain induced by a specific growth mechanism. The 1D stripes are characterized by a spatial modulation of the local density of states, which is strongly enhanced compared to the bulk system. Density functional theory calculations confirm the experimental findings, showing that the TI surface Dirac cone is preserved in the 1D moiré stripes, as expected from the topology, though with a heavily renormalized Fermi velocity that also changes between the top and valley of the stripes. The strongly enhanced density of surface states in the TI 1D moiré superstructure can be instrumental in promoting strong correlations in the topological surface states, which can be responsible for surface magnetism and topological superconductivity.

Bi2Se3 Growth on (001) GaAs Substrates for Terahertz Integrated Systems

Terahertz (THz) technologies have been of interest for many years due to the variety of applications including gas sensing, nonionizing imaging of biological systems, security and defense, and so forth. To date, scientists have used different classes of materials to perform different THz functions. However, to assemble an on-chip THz integrated system, we must understand how to integrate these different materials. Here, we explore the growth of Bi₂Se₃, a topological insulator material that could serve as a plasmonic waveguide in THz integrated devices, on technologically important GaAs(001) substrates. We explore surface treatments and find that an atomically smooth GaAs surface is critical to achieving high-quality Bi₂Se₃ films despite the relatively weak film/substrate interaction. Calculations indicate that the Bi₂Se₃/GaAs interface is likely selenium-terminated and shows no evidence of chemical bonding between the Bi₂Se₃ and the substrate. These results are a guide for integrating van der Waals materials with conventional semiconductor substrates and serve as the first steps toward achieving an on-chip THz integrated system.

Carrier Injection Observed by Interface-Enhanced Raman Scattering from Topological Insulators on Gold Substrates

The electron-phonon interaction at the interface between topological insulator (TI), namely, Bi₂Se₃ and Bi₂Te₃ two-dimensional (2D) nanoflakes, to a gold substrate as a function of TI flake thickness is studied by means of Raman scattering. We reveal the presence of interface-enhanced Raman scattering and a strong phonon renormalization induced by carriers injected from the gold substrate to the topological surface in contact. We derive the change of the electron-phonon coupling showing a nearly linear behavior as a function of layer thickness. The strongly nonlinear change of the Raman scattering cross section as a function of flake thickness can be associated with band bending effects at the metal-TI interface. Our results provide spectroscopic evidence for a strongly modified band structure in the first few quintuple layers of Bi₂Se₃ and Bi₂Te₃ in contact with gold.

Spin-Sensitive Epitaxial In2Se3 Tunnel Barrier in In2Se3/Bi2Se3 Topological van der Waals Heterostructure

Current-generated spin arising from spin-momentum locking in topological insulator (TI) surface states has been shown to switch the magnetization of an adjacent ferromagnet (FM) via spin-orbit torque (SOT) with a much higher efficiency than heavy metals. However, in such FM/TI heterostructures, most of the current is shunted through the FM metal due to its lower resistance, and recent calculations have also shown that topological surface states can be significantly impacted when interfaced with an FM metal such as Ni and Co. Hence, placing an insulating layer between the TI and FM will not only prevent current shunting, therefore minimizing overall power consumption, but may also help preserve the topological surface states at the interface. Here, we report the van der Waals epitaxial growth of β-phase In2Se3 on Bi2Se3 by molecular beam epitaxy and demonstrate its spin sensitivity by the electrical detection of current-generated spin in Bi2Se3 surface states using a Fe/In2Se3 detector contact. Our density functional calculations further confirm that the linear dispersion and spin texture of the Bi2Se3 surface states are indeed preserved at the In2Se3/Bi2Se3 interface. This demonstration of an epitaxial crystalline spin-sensitive barrier that can be grown directly on Bi2Se3, and verification that it preserves the topological surface state, is electrically insulating and spin-sensitive, is an important step toward minimizing overall power consumption in SOT switching in TI/FM heterostructures in fully epitaxial topological spintronic devices.

Construction of Bi2O2Se/Bi2Se3 Van Der Waals Heterostructures for Self-Powered and Broadband Photodetectors

Due to its superior carrier mobility and high air stability, the emerging two-dimensional (2D) layered bismuth oxyselenide (Bi₂O₂Se) nanosheets have attracted extensive attention, showing great potential for applications in the electronic and optoelectronic fields. However, a high mobility easily leads to a high dark current, seriously restricting optoelectronic applications, especially in the field of photodetectors. In this paper, we report a high-quality Van der Waals (vdWs) Bi₂O₂Se/Bi₂Se₃ heterostructure on a fluorophlogopite substrate, exhibiting excellent photodiode characteristics. By means of the effective separation of photogenerated electrons and holes by a junction barrier at the interface, the current on/off ratio is up to about 3 × 10³ under 532 nm laser illumination with zero bias. In addition, the photodetector not only achieves a fast response speed of 41 ms but also has a broadband photoresponse from 532 to 1450 nm (visible-NIR). Additionally, the responsivity can reach 0.29 A/W, and the external quantum efficiency exceeds 69% when the device operates in the reverse bias condition. The results indicate that the Bi₂O₂Se/Bi₂Se₃ vdWs heterostructure has great potential for self-powered, broadband, and fast photodetection applications.

Enhanced Photocurrent of the Ag Interfaced Topological Insulator Bi2Se3 under UV- and Visible-Light Radiations

Bi₂Se₃ is a topological quantum material that is used in photodetectors, owing to its narrow bandgap, conductive surface, and insulating bulk. In this work, Ag@Bi₂Se₃ nanoplatelets were synthesized on Al₂O₃(100) substrates in a two-step process of thermal evaporation and magnetron sputtering. X-ray diffractometer (XRD), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Raman spectroscopy, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed that all samples had the typical rhombohedral Bi₂Se₃. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)-energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS), XPS, and HRTEM confirmed the presence of the precipitated Ag. The optical absorptance of Bi₂Se₃ nanoplatelets in UV-visible range decreased with the Ag contents. Results of photocurrent measurements under zero-bias conditions revealed that the deposited Ag affected photosensitivity. A total of 7.1 at.% Ag was associated with approximately 4.25 and 4.57 times higher photocurrents under UV and visible light, respectively, than 0 at.% Ag. The photocurrent in Bi₂Se₃ at 7.1 at.% Ag under visible light was 1.72-folds of that under UV light. This enhanced photocurrent is attributable to the narrow bandgap (~0.35 eV) of Bi₂Se₃ nanoplatelets, the Schottky field at the interface between Ag and Bi₂Se₃, the surface plasmon resonance that is caused by Ag, and the highly conductive surface that is formed from Ag and Bi₂Se₃. This work suggests that the appropriate Ag deposition enhances the photocurrent in, and increases the photosensitivity of, Bi₂Se₃ nanoplatelets under UV and visible light.

Selenium Vacancy Engineering Using Bi2Se3 Nanodots for Boosting Highly Efficient Photonic Hyperthermia

Despite bismuth-based energy conversion nanomaterials having attracted extensive attention for nanomedicine, the nanomaterials suffer from major shortcomings including low tumor accumulation, long internal retention time, and undesirable photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE). To combat these challenges, bovine serum albumin and folic acid co-modified Bi2Se3 nanomedicine with rich selenium vacancies (abbreviated as VSe-BS) was fabricated for the second near-infrared (NIR-II) light-triggered photonic hyperthermia. More importantly, selenium vacancies on the crystal planes (0 1 5) and (0 1 11) of VSe-BS with similar formation energies could be distinctively observed via aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy images. The defect engineering endows VSe-BS with enhanced conductivity, making VSe-BS possess outstanding PCE (54.1%) in the NIR-II biowindow and desirable photoacoustic imaging performance. Tumor ablation studies indicate that VSe-BS possesses satisfactory therapeutic outcomes triggered by NIR-II light. These findings give rise to inspiration for further broadening the biological applications of defect engineering bismuth-based nanomaterials.

Quantum anomalous Hall effect in Cr2Ge2Te6/Bi2Se3/Cr2Ge2Te6heterostructures

Currently, quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect can only be observed at very low temperatures, which severely hinders its utilization from spintronics to quantum computation. Finding or predicting new systems supporting QAH effect at high temperatures remains essential and challenging. This work presents first-principles studies on the proximity effect between Bi₂Se₃slabs and Cr₂Ge₂Te₆(CGT) layers, reporting that Chern insulators are available in CGT/Bi₂Se₃/CGT heterostructures. If the sandwiched Bi₂Se₃slab is 4 quintuple layers (QLs) or thicker, the Chern insulating state is robust against the interfacial stacking manner. If the Bi₂Se₃slab is only 2 or 3 QLs, the CrBi- and CrH-aligned heterostructures are also Chern insulators, while the CrSe-aligned ones are trivial. The Chern insulators support the Hall conductivityσ_xy=e²/hand have energy gaps ranging from 3 to 20 meV, implying QAH effect at higher temperatures. An effective model Hamiltonian is introduced to understand the topological phase of the heterostructures.

High-Yield Growth and Tunable Morphology of Bi2Se3 Nanoribbons Synthesized on Thermally Dewetted Au

The yield and morphology (length, width, thickness) of stoichiometric Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons grown by physical vapor deposition is studied as a function of the diameters and areal number density of the Au catalyst nanoparticles of mean diameters 8–150 nm formed by dewetting Au layers of thicknesses 1.5–16 nm. The highest yield of the Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons is reached when synthesized on dewetted 3 nm thick Au layer (mean diameter of Au nanoparticles ~10 nm) and exceeds the nanoribbon yield obtained in catalyst-free synthesis by almost 50 times. The mean lengths and thicknesses of the Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons are directly proportional to the mean diameters of Au catalyst nanoparticles. In contrast, the mean widths of the Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons do not show a direct correlation with the Au nanoparticle size as they depend on the contribution ratio of two main growth mechanisms—catalyst-free and vapor–liquid–solid deposition. The Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbon growth mechanisms in relation to the Au catalyst nanoparticle size and areal number density are discussed. Determined charge transport characteristics confirm the high quality of the synthesized Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons, which, together with the high yield and tunable morphology, makes these suitable for application in a variety of nanoscale devices.

Epitaxial growth of Bi(110) and Bi2Se3thin films on a ferromagnetic insulator substrate of Cr2Ge2Te6

When a topological insulator (TI) is brought to the proximity of a ferromagnetic insulator (FMI), the breaking of the time-reversal symmetry may give rise to quantum anomalous Hall effect (QAHE). The physical properties of such TI-FMI systems are greatly affected by the interfacial structures of the components. Here, we report the growth and structural properties of Bi(110) and Bi₂Se₃thin films on a FMI of Cr₂Ge₂Te₆(CGT) substrate by scanning tunneling microscopy. We observed various defects and impurities on the CGT surfaces, which serve as the preferential sites for initial nucleation and epitaxial growth of Bi(110) thin films. The exposure of the as-grown Bi(110) thin films to Se vapor leads to the formation of polycrystalline Bi₂Se₃thin films with randomly distributed holes. The structure and composition of the as-prepared Bi₂Se₃thin films were further confirmed by Raman spectroscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Our work shows that the quality of the CGT crystals is vital for the growth of high-quality TIs on CGT substrates for QAHE.

Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance of n-Type Bi2Se3 Nanosheets through Sn Doping

The cost-effective conversion of low-grade heat into electricity using thermoelectric devices requires developing alternative materials and material processing technologies able to reduce the currently high device manufacturing costs. In this direction, thermoelectric materials that do not rely on rare or toxic elements such as tellurium or lead need to be produced using high-throughput technologies not involving high temperatures and long processes. Bi₂Se₃ is an obvious possible Te-free alternative to Bi₂Te₃ for ambient temperature thermoelectric applications, but its performance is still low for practical applications, and additional efforts toward finding proper dopants are required. Here, we report a scalable method to produce Bi₂Se₃ nanosheets at low synthesis temperatures. We studied the influence of different dopants on the thermoelectric properties of this material. Among the elements tested, we demonstrated that Sn doping resulted in the best performance. Sn incorporation resulted in a significant improvement to the Bi₂Se₃ Seebeck coefficient and a reduction in the thermal conductivity in the direction of the hot-press axis, resulting in an overall 60% improvement in the thermoelectric figure of merit of Bi₂Se₃.

Photosensing and Characterizing of the Pristine and In-, Sn-Doped Bi2Se3 Nanoplatelets Fabricated by Thermal V-S Process

Pristine, and In-, Sn-, and (In, Sn)-doped Bi₂Se₃ nanoplatelets synthesized on Al₂O₃(100) substrate by a vapor–solid mechanism in thermal CVD process via at 600 °C under 2 × 10⁻² Torr. XRD and HRTEM reveal that In or Sn dopants had no effect on the crystal structure of the synthesized rhombohedral-Bi₂Se₃. FPA–FTIR reveals that the optical bandgap of doped Bi₂Se₃ was 26.3%, 34.1%, and 43.7% lower than pristine Bi₂Se₃. XRD, FESEM–EDS, Raman spectroscopy, and XPS confirm defects (In3+Bi3+), (In3+V0), (Sn4+Bi3+), (V0Bi3+), and (Sn2+Bi3+). Photocurrent that was generated in (In,Sn)-doped Bi₂Se₃ under UV(8 W) and red (5 W) light revealed stable photocurrents of 5.20 × 10⁻¹⁰ and 0.35 × 10⁻¹⁰ A and high I_photo/I_dark ratios of 30.7 and 52.2. The rise and fall times of the photocurrent under UV light were 4.1 × 10⁻² and 6.6 × 10⁻² s. Under UV light, (In,Sn)-dopedBi₂Se₃ had 15.3% longer photocurrent decay time and 22.6% shorter rise time than pristine Bi₂Se₃, indicating that (In,Sn)-doped Bi₂Se₃ exhibited good surface conduction and greater photosensitivity. These results suggest that In, Sn, or both dopants enhance photodetection of pristine Bi₂Se₃ under UV and red light. The findings also suggest that type of defect is a more important factor than optical bandgap in determining photo-detection sensitivity. (In,Sn)-doped Bi₂Se₃ has greater potential than undoped Bi₂Se₃ for use in UV and red-light photodetectors.

Local insight to the structural phase transition sequence of Bi2Se3under quasi-hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic pressure

High-pressure behaviors of Bi₂Se₃, as one of layered 3D topological insulators, has attracted tremendous interest recent years. However, the phase transition sequence of Bi₂Se₃remain controversial. In this work, we explore the structural phase sequence of topological insulator Bi₂Se₃using high-pressure x-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy under quasi-hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic pressure up to 42 GPa. By examining the XAFS features, we find that the appearance ofC2/cphase of Bi₂Se₃is strongly dependent on pressure condition,C2/cphase of Bi₂Se₃only exists under quasi-hydrostatic pressure condition. The phonon dispersion calculations also show thatC2/cphase is dynamic unstable. Furthermore, we confirm that Bi₂Se₃possessesI4/mmmphase rather thanIm-3mand 9/10-foldC2/mphase at high pressure. Combining the experimental and theoretical results, we determine the structural phase transition sequence for Bi₂Se₃ofR-3m→C2/m→C2/c→I4/mmmphase under quasi-hydrostatic pressure condition andR-3m→C2/m→I4/mmmphase under nonhydrostatic pressure condition. The dynamic unstability and pressure condition sensitivity ofC2/cphase may be account for the absence ofC2/cphase in the phase transition sequence under nonhydrostatic pressure condition. Our findings obtain the high-pressure phase transition sequences of Bi₂Se₃under hydrostatic and nonhydrostatic pressure condition, which can facilitate researchers to explore the novel properties in layered 3D topological insulators.

Reactivity of Ionic Liquids: Reductive Effect of [C4 C1 im]BF4 to Form Particles of Red Amorphous Selenium and Bi2 Se3 from Oxide Precursors

Temperature-induced change in reactivity of the frequently used ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([C4 C1 im]BF4 ) is presented as a prerequisite for the rational screening of reaction courses in material synthesis. [C4 C1 im]BF4 becomes active with oxidic precursor compounds in reduction reaction at ϑ≥200 °C, even without the addition of an external reducing agent. The reaction mechanism of forming red amorphous selenium from SeO2 is investigated as a model system and can be described similarly to the Riley oxidation. The reactive species but-1-ene, which is formed during the decomposition of [C4 C1 im]BF4 , reacts with SeO2 and form but-3-en-2-one, water, and selenium. Elucidation of the mechanism was achieved by thermoanalytical investigations. The monotropic phase transition of selenium was analyzed by the differential scanning calorimetry. Beyond, the suitability of the single source oxide precursor Bi2 Se3 O9 for the synthesis of Bi2 Se3 particles was confirmed. Identification, characterization of formed solids succeeded by using light microscopy, XRD, SEM, and EDX.

Tunable High Speed Atomic Rotor in Bi2Se3 Revealed by Current Noise

The ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules using a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) has been crucial for the development of a vast array of atomic-scale devices and structures ranging from nanoscale motors and switches to quantum corrals. Molecular motors in particular have attracted considerable attention in view of their potential for assembly into complex nanoscale machines. Whereas the manipulated atoms or molecules are usually on top of a substrate, motors embedded in a lattice can be very beneficial for bottom-up construction, and may additionally be used to probe the influence of the lattice on the electronic properties of the host material. Here, we present the discovery of controlled manipulation of a rotor in Fe doped Bi₂Se₃. We find that the current into the rotor, which can be finely tuned with the voltage, drives omni-directional switching between three equivalent orientations, each of which can be frozen in at small bias voltage. Using current fluctuation measurements at 1 MHz and model simulations, we estimate that switching rates of hundreds of kHz for sub-nanoampere currents are achieved.

2D Bi2Se3 van der Waals Epitaxy on Mica for Optoelectronics Applications

Bi₂Se₃ possesses a two-dimensional layered rhombohedral crystal structure, where the quintuple layers (QLs) are covalently bonded within the layers but weakly held together by van der Waals forces between the adjacent QLs. It is also pointed out that Bi₂Se₃ is a topological insulator, making it a promising candidate for a wide range of electronic and optoelectronic applications. In this study, we investigate the growth of high-quality Bi₂Se₃ thin films on mica by the molecular beam epitaxy technique. The films exhibited a layered structure and highly c-axis-preferred growth orientation with an XRD rocking curve full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of 0.088°, clearly demonstrating excellent crystallinity for the Bi₂Se₃ deposited on the mica substrate. The growth mechanism was studied by using an interface model associated with the coincidence site lattice unit (CSLU) developed for van der Waals epitaxies. This high (001) texture favors electron transport in the material. Hall measurements revealed a mobility of 726 cm²/(Vs) at room temperature and up to 1469 cm²/(Vs) at 12 K. The results illustrate excellent electron mobility arising from the superior crystallinity of the films with significant implications for applications in conducting electrodes in optoelectronic devices on flexible substrates.

Enhanced Photoinduced Carrier Generation Efficiency through Surface Band Bending in Topological Insulator Bi2Se3 Thin Films by the Oxidized Layer

Topological insulators (TIs) have become popular in the field of optoelectronic devices because of their broadband and high-sensitivity properties, which are attributed to the narrow band gap of the bulk state and high mobility of the Dirac surface state. Although perfectly grown TIs are known to exhibit strong stability against oxidation, in most cases, the existence of vacancy defects in TIs reacts to air and the characteristics of TIs is affected by oxidation. Therefore, changes in the band structure and electrical characteristics by oxidation should be considered. A significant change occurs because of the oxidation; however, the dependence of the photoresponse of TIs on oxidation has not been studied in detail. In this study, the photoresponsivity of oxidized Bi₂Se₃ films is enhanced, rather than degraded, after oxidation in air for 24 h, resulting in a maximum responsivity of 140 mA W^-1. This responsivity is substantially higher than previously reported values for Bi₂Se₃. Furthermore, a change in the photoresponse time of Bi₂Se₃ due to air exposure is systematically observed. Based on variations in the Fermi level and work function, using photoelectron spectroscopy, it is confirmed that the responsivity is improved from the junction effect of the Bi-based surface oxidized layer.

Designer Topological Insulator with Enhanced Gap and Suppressed Bulk Conduction in Bi2Se3/Sb2Te3 Ultrashort-Period Superlattices

A novel approach to suppress bulk conductance in three-dimensional (3D) topological insulators (TIs) using short-period superlattices (SLs) of two TIs is presented. Evidence for superlattice gap enhancement (SGE) was obtained from the reduction of bulk background doping from 1.2 × 10²⁰ cm^-3 to 8.5 × 10¹⁸ cm^-3 as the period of Bi₂Se₃/Sb₂Te₃ SLs is decreased from 12 nm to 5 nm. Tight binding calculations show that, in the ultrashort-period regime, a significant SGE can be achieved for the resulting SL. Ultrathin short-period SLs behave as new designer TIs with bulk bandgaps up to 60% larger than the bandgap of the constituent layer of largest bandgap, while retaining topological surface features. Evidence for gap formation was obtained from ellipsometric measurements. Analysis of the weak antilocalization cusp in low-temperature magneto-conductance confirms that the top and bottom surfaces of the SL structure behave as Dirac surfaces. This approach represents a promising platform for building truly insulating TIs.

Topological Phase Control of Surface States in Bi2Se3 via Spin-Orbit Coupling Modulation through Interface Engineering between HfO2-X

The direct control of topological surface states in topological insulators is an important prerequisite for the application of these materials. Conventional attempts to utilize magnetic doping, mechanical tuning, structural engineering, external bias, and external magnetic fields suffer from a lack of reversible switching and have limited tunability. We demonstrate the direct control of topological phases in a bismuth selenide (Bi₂Se₃) topological insulator in 3 nm molecular beam epitaxy-grown films through the hybridization of the topological surface states with the hafnium (Hf) d-orbitals in the topmost layer of an underlying oxygen-deficient hafnium oxide (HfO₂) substrate. The higher angular momentum of the d-orbitals of Hf is hybridized strongly by topological insulators, thereby enhancing the spin-orbit coupling and perturbing the topological surface states asymmetry in Bi₂Se₃. As the oxygen defect is cured or generated reversibly by external electric fields, our research facilitates the complete electrical control of the topological phases of topological insulators by controlling the defect density in the adjacent transition metal oxide. In addition, this mechanism can be applied in other related topological materials such as Weyl and Dirac semimetals in future endeavors to facilitate practical applications in unit-element devices for quantum computing and quantum communication.

Self-Filtering Monochromatic Infrared Detectors Based on Bi2Se3 (Sb2Te3)/Silicon Heterojunctions

This paper focuses on the photoelectric properties of heterostructures formed by surface-modified Si (111) and hexagonal, quintuple-layered selenides (Bi₂Se₃ and Sb₂Te₃). It was shown that H-passivated Si (111) can form robust Schottky junctions with either Bi₂Se₃ or Sb₂Te₃. When back illuminated (i.e., light incident towards the Si side of the junction), both the Bi₂Se₃/Si and Sb₂Te₃/Si junctions exhibited significant photovoltaic response at 1030 nm, which is right within the near-infrared (NIR) light wavelength range. A maximum external quantum efficiency of 14.7% with a detection response time of 2 ms for Bi₂Se₃/Si junction, and of 15.5% with a 0.8 ms response time for the Sb₂Te₃/Si junction, were achieved. Therefore, utilizing Si constituents as high-pass filters, the Bi₂Se₃ (Sb₂Te₃)/Si heterojunctions can serve as monochromatic NIR photodetectors.

2D Materials in Development of Electrochemical Point-of-Care Cancer Screening Devices

Effective cancer treatment requires early detection and monitoring the development progress in a simple and affordable manner. Point-of care (POC) screening can provide a portable and inexpensive tool for the end-users to conveniently operate test and screen their health conditions without the necessity of special skills. Electrochemical methods hold great potential for clinical analysis of variety of chemicals and substances as well as cancer biomarkers due to their low cost, high sensitivity, multiplex detection ability, and miniaturization aptitude. Advances in two-dimensional (2D) material-based electrochemical biosensors/sensors are accelerating the performance of conventional devices toward more practical approaches. Here, recent trends in the development of 2D material-based electrochemical biosensors/sensors, as the next generation of POC cancer screening tools, are summarized. Three cancer biomarker categories, including proteins, nucleic acids, and some small molecules, will be considered. Various 2D materials will be introduced and their biomedical applications and electrochemical properties will be given. The role of 2D materials in improving the performance of electrochemical sensing mechanisms as well as the pros and cons of current sensors as the prospective devices for POC screening will be emphasized. Finally, the future scopes of implementing 2D materials in electrochemical POC cancer diagnostics for the clinical translation will be discussed.

Single NIR Laser-Activated Multifunctional Nanoparticles for Cascaded Photothermal and Oxygen-Independent Photodynamic Therapy

Inconvenient dual-laser irradiation and tumor hypoxic environment as well as limited judgment of treating region have impeded the development of combined photothermal and photodynamic therapies (PTT and PDT). Herein, Bi₂Se₃@AIPH nanoparticles (NPs) are facilely developed to overcome these problems. Through a one-step method, free radical generator (AIPH) and phase transition material (lauric acid, LA, 44-46 °C) are encapsulated in hollow bismuth selenide nanoparticles (Bi₂Se₃ NPs). Under a single 808-nm laser irradiation at the tumor area, hyperthermia produced by Bi₂Se₃ not only directly leads to cell death, but also promotes AIPH release by melting LA and triggers free radical generation, which could further eradicate tumor cells in hypoxic environments. Moreover, Bi₂Se₃ with high X-ray attenuation coefficient endows the NPs with high computed tomography (CT) imaging capability, which is important for treating area determination. The results exhibit that Bi₂Se₃@AIPH NPs possesses 31.2% photothermal conversion efficiency for enhanced PTT, ideal free radical generation for oxygen-independent PDT, and 37.77 HU mL mg^-1 X-ray attenuation coefficient for CT imaging with high quality. Most importantly, the tumor growth inhibition rate by synergistic PTT, PDT, and following immunotherapy is 99.6%, and even one tumor disappears completely, which demonstrates excellent cascaded synergistic effect of Bi₂Se₃@AIPH NPs for the tumor therapy.

Interstitial defects in the van der Waals gap of Bi2Se3

Bi₂Se₃ is a thermoelectric material and a topological insulator. It is slightly conducting in its bulk due to the presence of defects and by controlling the defects different physical properties can be fine tuned. However, studies of the defects in this material are often contradicting or inconclusive. Here, the defect structure of Bi₂Se₃ is studied with a combination of techniques: high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (HR-STEM), high-resolution energy-dispersive X-ray (HR-EDX) spectroscopy, precession electron diffraction tomography (PEDT), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and first-principles calculations using density functional theory (DFT). Based on these results, not only the observed defects are discussed, but also the discrepancies in results or possibilities across the techniques. STEM and EDX revealed interstitial defects with mainly Bi character in an octahedral coordination in the van der Waals gap, independent of the applied sample preparation method (focused ion beam milling or cryo-crushing). The inherent character of these defects is supported by their observation in the structure refinement of the EDT data. Moreover, the occupancy probability of the defects determined by EDT is inversely proportional to their corresponding DFT calculated formation energies. STEM also showed the migration of some atoms across and along the van der Waals gap. The kinetic barriers calculated using DFT suggest that some paths are possible at room temperature, while others are most probably beam induced.

Closing the Surface Bandgap in Thin Bi2Se3/Graphene Heterostructures

Topological insulator (TI), a band insulator with topologically protected edge states, is one of the most interesting materials in the field of condensed matter. Bismuth selenide (Bi₂Se₃) is the most spotlighted three-dimensional TI material; it has a Dirac cone at each top and bottom surface and a relatively wide bandgap. For application, suppression of the bulk effect is crucial, but in ultrathin TI materials, with thicknesses less than 3 QL, the finite size effect works on the linear dispersion of the surface states, so that the surface band has a finite bandgap because of the hybridization between the top and bottom surface states and Rashba splitting, resulting from the structure inversion asymmetry. Here, we studied the gapless top surface Dirac state of strained 3 QL Bi₂Se₃/graphene heterostructures. A strain caused by the graphene layer reduces the bandgap of surface states, and the band bending resulting from the charge transfer at the Bi₂Se₃-graphene interface induces localization of surface states to each top and bottom layer to suppress the overlap of the two surface states. In addition, we verified the independent transport channel of the top surface Dirac state in Bi₂Se₃/graphene heterostructures by measuring the magneto-conductance. Our findings suggest that the strain and the proximity effect in TI/non-TI heterostructures may be feasible ways to engineer the topological surface states beyond the physical and topological thickness limit.

Corrigendum: Numerical analysis of surface and edge states in slabs, stripes, rods and surface steps of topological insulators (N I Fedotov and S V Zaitsev-Zotov 2018 J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 30 485301)

Corrigendum.

Bi2Se3 Sensitized TiO2 Nanotube Films for Photogenerated Cathodic Protection of 304 Stainless Steel Under Visible Light

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanotube arrays coupled with a narrow gap semiconductor-bismuth selenide (Bi₂Se₃)-exhibited remarkable enhancement in the photocathodic protection property for 304 stainless steel under visible light. Bi₂Se₃/TiO₂ nanocomposites were successfully synthesized using a simple two-step method, including an electrochemical anodization method for preparing pure TiO₂ and a chemical bath deposition method for synthesizing Bi₂Se₃ nanoflowers. The morphology and structure of the composite films were studied by scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersion spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. In addition, the influence of the Bi₂Se₃ content on the photoelectrochemical and photocathodic protection properties of the composite films was also studied. The photocurrent density of the Bi₂Se₃/TiO₂ nanocomposites was significantly higher than that of pure TiO₂ under visible light. The sensitizer Bi₂Se₃ enhanced the efficient separation of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs and the photocathodic protection properties of TiO₂. Under visible light illumination, Bi₂Se₃/TiO₂ nanocomposites synthesized by the chemical bath deposition method with Bi³⁺ (0.5 mmol/L) exhibited the optimal photogenerated cathodic protection performance for 304 stainless steel.

Revealing Optical Transitions and Carrier Recombination Dynamics within the Bulk Band Structure of Bi2Se3

Bismuth selenide (Bi₂Se₃) is a prototypical 3D topological insulator whose Dirac surface states have been extensively studied theoretically and experimentally. Surprisingly little, however, is known about the energetics and dynamics of electrons and holes within the bulk band structure of the semiconductor. We use mid-infrared femtosecond transient reflectance measurements on a single nanoflake to study the ultrafast thermalization and recombination dynamics of photoexcited electrons and holes within the extended bulk band structure over a wide energy range (0.3 to 1.2 eV). Theoretical modeling of the reflectivity spectral line shapes at 10 K demonstrates that the electrons and holes are photoexcited within a dense and cold electron gas with a Fermi level positioned well above the bottom of the lowest conduction band. Direct optical transitions from the first and the second spin-orbit split valence bands to the Fermi level above the lowest conduction band minimum are identified. The photoexcited carriers thermalize rapidly to the lattice temperature within a couple of picoseconds due to optical phonon emission and scattering with the cold electron gas. The minority carrier holes recombine with the dense electron gas within 150 ps at 10 K and 50 ps at 300 K. Such knowledge of interaction of electrons and holes within the bulk band structure provides a foundation for understanding how such states interact dynamically with the topologically protected Dirac surface states.

Transmission Electron Microscope Nanosculpting of Topological Insulator Bismuth Selenide

We present a process for sculpting Bi₂Se₃ nanoflakes into application-relevant geometries using a high-resolution transmission electron microscope. This process takes several minutes to sculpt small areas and can be used to cut the Bi₂Se₃ into wires and rings, to thin areas of the Bi₂Se₃, and to drill circular holes and lines. We determined that this method allows for sub 10 nm features and results in clean edges along the drilled regions. Using in situ high-resolution imaging, selected area diffraction, and atomic force microscopy, we found that this lithography process preserves the crystal structure of Bi₂Se₃. TEM sculpting is more precise and potentially results in cleaner edges than does ion-beam modification; therefore, the promise of this method for thermoelectric and topological devices calls for further study into the transport properties of such structures.

Solution to the Hole-Doping Problem and Tunable Quantum Hall Effect in Bi2Se3 Thin Films

Bi₂Se₃, one of the most widely studied topological insulators (TIs), is naturally electron-doped due to n-type native defects. However, many years of efforts to achieve p-type Bi₂Se₃ thin films have failed so far. Here, we provide a solution to this long-standing problem, showing that the main culprit has been the high density of interfacial defects. By suppressing these defects through an interfacial engineering scheme, we have successfully implemented p-type Bi₂Se₃ thin films down to the thinnest topological regime. On this platform, we present the first tunable quantum Hall effect (QHE) study in Bi₂Se₃ thin films and reveal not only significantly asymmetric QHE signatures across the Dirac point but also the presence of competing anomalous states near the zeroth Landau level. The availability of doping tunable Bi₂Se₃ thin films will now make it possible to implement various topological quantum devices, previously inaccessible.

Bi2Se3/C Nanocomposite as a New Sodium-Ion Battery Anode Material

Bi₂Se₃ was studied as a novel sodium-ion battery anode material because of its high theoretical capacity and high intrinsic conductivity. Integrated with carbon, Bi₂Se₃/C composite shows excellent cyclic performance and rate capability. For instance, the Bi₂Se₃/C anode delivers an initial capacity of 527 mAh g^-1 at 0.1 A g^-1 and maintains 89% of this capacity over 100 cycles. The phase change and sodium storage mechanism are also carefully investigated.

Photoinduced Inverse Spin Hall Effect of Surface States in the Topological Insulator Bi2Se3

The three-dimensional (3D) topological insulator (TI) Bi₂Se₃ exhibits topologically protected, linearly dispersing Dirac surface states (SSs). To access the intriguing properties of these SSs, it is important to distinguish them from the coexisting two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) on the surface. Here, we use circularly polarized light to induce the inverse spin Hall effect in a Bi₂Se₃ thin film at different temperatures (i.e., from 77 to 300 K). It is demonstrated that the photoinduced inverse spin Hall effect (PISHE) of the top SSs and the 2DEG can be separated based on their opposite signs. The temperature and power dependence of the PISHE also confirms our method. Furthermore, it is found that the PISHE in the 2DEG is dominated by the extrinsic mechanism, as revealed by the temperature dependence of the PISHE.

Chemical Intercalation of Topological Insulator Grid Nanostructures for High-Performance Transparent Electrodes

2D layered nanomaterials with strong covalent bonding within layers and weak van der Waals' interactions between layers have attracted tremendous interest in recent years. Layered Bi₂ Se₃ is a representative topological insulator material in this family, which holds promise for exploration of the fundamental physics and practical applications such as transparent electrode. Here, a simultaneous enhancement of optical transmittancy and electrical conductivity in Bi₂ Se₃ grid electrodes by copper-atom intercalation is presented. These Cu-intercalated 2D Bi₂ Se₃ electrodes exhibit high uniformity over large area and excellent stabilities to environmental perturbations, such as UV light, thermal fluctuation, and mechanical distortion. Remarkably, by intercalating a high density of copper atoms, the electrical and optical performance of Bi₂ Se₃ grid electrodes is greatly improved from 900 Ω sq^-1 , 68% to 300 Ω sq^-1 , 82% in the visible range; with better performance of 300 Ω sq^-1 , 91% achieved in the near-infrared region. These unique properties of Cu-intercalated topological insulator grid nanostructures may boost their potential applications in high-performance optoelectronics, especially for infrared optoelectronic devices.

Room Temperature Electrical Detection of Spin Polarized Currents in Topological Insulators

Topological insulators (TIs) are a new class of quantum materials that exhibit a current-induced spin polarization due to spin-momentum locking of massless Dirac Fermions in their surface states. This helical spin polarization in three-dimensional (3D) TIs has been observed using photoemission spectroscopy up to room temperatures. Recently, spin polarized surface currents in 3D TIs were detected electrically by potentiometric measurements using ferromagnetic detector contacts. However, these electric measurements are so far limited to cryogenic temperatures. Here we report the room temperature electrical detection of the spin polarization on the surface of Bi2Se3 by employing spin sensitive ferromagnetic tunnel contacts. The current-induced spin polarization on the Bi2Se3 surface is probed by measuring the magnetoresistance while switching the magnetization direction of the ferromagnetic detector. A spin resistance of up to 70 mΩ is measured at room temperature, which increases linearly with current bias, reverses sign with current direction, and decreases with higher TI thickness. The magnitude of the spin signal, its sign, and control experiments, using different measurement geometries and interface conditions, rule out other known physical effects. These findings provide further information about the electrical detection of current-induced spin polarizations in 3D TIs at ambient temperatures and could lead to innovative spin-based technologies.

Anisotropic Terahertz Emission from Bi2Se3 Thin Films with Inclined Crystal Planes

We investigate the surface states of topological insulator (TI) Bi2Se3 thin films grown on Si nanocrystals and Al2O3 substrates by using terahertz (THz) emission spectroscopy. Compared to bulk crystalline Bi2Te2Se, film TIs exhibit distinct behaviors in the phase and amplitude of emitted THz radiation. In particular, Bi2Se3 grown on Al2O3 shows an anisotropic response with a strong modulation of the THz signal in its phase. From x-ray diffraction, we find that the crystal plane of the Bi2Se3 films is inclined with respect to the plane of the Al2O3 substrate by about 0.27°. This structural anisotropy affects the dynamics of photocarriers and hence leads to the observed anisotropic response in the THz emission. Such relevance demonstrates that THz emission spectroscopy can be a sensitive tool to investigate the fine details of the surface crystallography and electrostatics of thin film TIs.

Synthesis of Multishell Nanoplates by Consecutive Epitaxial Growth of Bi2Se3 and Bi2Te3 Nanoplates and Enhanced Thermoelectric Properties

We herein demonstrate the successive epitaxial growth of Bi2Te3 and Bi2Se3 on seed nanoplates for the scalable synthesis of heterostructured nanoplates (Bi2Se3@Bi2Te3) and multishell nanoplates (Bi2Se3@Bi2Te3@Bi2Se3, Bi2Se3@Bi2Te3@Bi2Se3@Bi2Te3). The relative dimensions of the constituting layers are controllable via the molar ratios of the precursors added to the seed nanoplate solution. Reduction of the precursors produces nanoparticles that attach preferentially to the sides of the seed nanoplates. Once attached, the nanoparticles reorganize epitaxially on the seed crystal lattices to form single-crystalline core-shell nanoplates. The nanoplates, initially 100 nm wide, grew laterally to 620 nm in the multishell structure, while their thickness increased more moderately, from 5 to 20 nm. The nanoplates were pelletized into bulk samples by spark plasma sintering and their thermoelectric properties are compared. A peak thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) ∼0.71 was obtained at 450 K for the bulk of Bi2Se3@Bi2Te3 nanoplates by simultaneous modulation of electronic and thermal transport in the presence of highly dense grain and phase boundaries.

Surface effects on electronic transport of 2D chalcogenide thin films and nanostructures

The renewed interest in two-dimensional materials, particularly transition metal dichalcogenides, has been explosive, evident in a number of review and perspective articles on the topic. Our ability to synthesize and study these 2D materials down to a single layer and to stack them to form van der Waals heterostructures opens up a wide range of possibilities from fundamental studies of nanoscale effects to future electronic and optoelectronic applications. Bottom-up and top-down synthesis and basic electronic properties of 2D chalcogenide materials have been covered in great detail elsewhere. Here, we bring attention to more subtle effects: how the environmental, surface, and crystal defects modify the electronic band structure and transport properties of 2D chalcogenide nanomaterials. Surface effects such as surface oxidation and substrate influence may dominate the overall transport properties, particularly in single layer chalcogenide devices. Thus, understanding such effects is critical for successful applications based on these materials. In this review, we discuss two classes of chalcogenides - Bi-based and Mo-based chalcogenides. The first are topological insulators with unique surface electronic properties and the second are promising for flexible optoelectronic applications as well as hydrogen evolution catalytic reactions.