DNA metabarcoding analysis of fungal community on surface of four root herbs

Objective

Angelicae Sinensis Radix (ASR, Danggui in Chinese), Cistanches Herba (CH, Roucongrong in Chinese), Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma (PG, Renshen in Chinese), and Panacis Quinquefolii Radix (PQ, Xiyangshen in Chinese), widely used as medicine and dietary supplement around the world, are susceptible to fungal and mycotoxin contamination. In this study, we aim to analyze their fungal community by DNA metabarcoding.

Methods

A total of 12 root samples were collected from three main production areas in China. The samples were divided into four groups based on herb species, including ASR, CH, PG, and PQ groups. The fungal community on the surface of four root groups was investigated through DNA metabarcoding via targeting the internal transcribed spacer 2 region (ITS2).

Results

All the 12 samples were detected with fungal contamination. Rhizopus (13.04%-74.03%), Aspergillus (1.76%-23.92%), and Fusarium (0.26%-15.27%) were the predominant genera. Ten important fungi were identified at the species level, including two potential toxigenic fungi (Penicillium citrinum and P. oxalicum) and eight human pathogenic fungi (Alternaria infectoria, Candida sake, Hyphopichia burtonii, Malassezia globosa, M. restricta, Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, and Ochroconis tshawytschae). Fungal community in ASR and CH groups was significantly different from other groups, while fungal community in PG and PQ groups was relatively similar.

Conclusion

DNA metabarcoding revealed the fungal community in four important root herbs. This study provided an important reference for preventing root herbs against fungal and mycotoxin contamination.

[Mechanism of Cistanches Herba in treatment of cancer-related fatigue based on network pharmacology and experimental verification]

This study aimed to explore the mechanism of Cistanches Herba in the treatment of cancer-induced fatigue(CRF) by network pharmacology combined with in vivo and in vitro experiments to provide a theoretical basis for the clinical medication. The chemical constituents and targets of Cistanches Herba were searched from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform(TCMSP). The targets of CRF were screened out by GeneCards and NCBI. The common targets of traditional Chinese medicine and disease were selected to construct a protein-protein interaction(PPI) network, followed by Gene Ontology(GO) functional and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes(KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses. A visual signal pathway rela-ted to Chinese medicine and disease targets was constructed. The CRF model was induced by paclitaxel(PTX) in mice. Mice were divided into a control group, a PTX model group, and low-and high-dose Cistanches Herba extract groups(250 and 500 mg·kg~(-1)). The anti-CRF effect in mice was evaluated by open field test, tail suspension test, and exhaustive swimming time, and the pathological morphology of skeletal muscle was evaluated by hematoxylin-eosin(HE) staining. The cancer cachexia model in C2C12 muscle cells was induced by C26 co-culture, and the cells were divided into a control group, a conditioned medium model group, and low-, medium-, and high-dose Cistanches Herba extract groups(62.5, 125, and 250 μg·mL~(-1)). The reactive oxygen species(ROS) content in each group was detected by flow cytometry, and the intracellular mitochondrial status was evaluated by transmission electron microscopy. The protein expression levels of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α(HIF-1α), BNIP3L, and Beclin-1 were detected by Western blot. Six effective constituents were screened out from Cistanches Herba. The core genes of Cistanches Herba in treating CRF were AKT1, IL-6, VEGFA, CASP3, JUN, EGFR, MYC, EGF, MAPK1, PTGS2, MMP9, IL-1B, FOS, and IL10, and the pathways related to CRF were AGE-RAGE and HIF-1α. Through GO enrichment analysis, it was found that the main biological functions involved were lipid peroxidation, nutrient deficiency, chemical stress, oxidative stress, oxygen content, and other biological processes. The results of the in vivo experiment showed that Cistanches Herba extract could significantly improve skeletal muscle atrophy in mice to relieve CRF. The in vitro experiment showed that Cistanches Herba extract could significantly reduce the content of intracellular ROS, the percentage of mitochondrial fragmentation, and the protein expression of Beclin-1 and increase the number of autophagosomes and the protein expression of HIF-1α and BNIP3L. Cistanches Herba showed a good anti-CRF effect, and its mechanism may be related to the key target proteins in the HIF-1α signaling pathway.

[Update classical literature research on Cistanches Herba]

Cistanches Herba(CH), a valuable medicinal material which has long been used, originated from Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica. It has a wealth of names, such as Rousongrong, Heisiming, Dijing, and Dayun. The definition on the original plants which are parasitic and distributed in the unique environments in remote areas has been confusing, resulting in the emergence of various counterfeits and substitutes. Moreover, the records on the property, flavor, tropism, and indications of CH are also different. In order to further explore the cultural connotation and medicinal value of CH and further clarify its source and harvesting and processing methods, this study conducted further classical literature research on its name, harvesting and processing, property and flavor, meridian tropism, efficacy and clinical use, and textual research on its source and habitats, providing a reference for research, clinical medication, development and utilization, and industry development of CH.

[Identification of Q-markers for Cistanches Herba based on HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS and network pharmacology]

This study aims to establish a method for analyzing the chemical constituents in Cistanches Herba by high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) and quadrupole-time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry(HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS), and to reveal the pharmacological mechanism based on network pharmacology for mining the quality markers(Q-markers) of Cistanches Herba. The chemical constituents of Cistanche deserticola and C. tubulosa were analyzed via HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. The potential targets and pathways of Cistanches Herba were predicted via SwissTargetPrediction and DAVID. The compound-target-pathway-pharmacological action-efficacy network was constructed via Cytoscape. A total of 47 chemical constituents were identified, involving 95 targets and 56 signaling pathways. We preliminarily elucidated the pharmacological mechanisms of echinacoside, acteoside, isoacteoside, cistanoside F, 2'-acetylacteoside, cistanoside A, campneoside Ⅱ, salidroside, tubuloside B, 6-deoxycatalpol, 8-epi-loganic acid, ajugol, bartsioside, geniposidic acid, and pinoresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and predicted them to be the Q-markers of Cistanches Herba. This study identified the chemical constituents of Cistanches Herba, explained the pharmacological mechanism of the traditional efficacy of Cistanches Herba based on network pharmacology, and introduced the core concept of Q-markers to improve the quality evaluation of Cistanches Herba.

The hepatoprotective efficacy and biological mechanisms of three phenylethanoid glycosides from cistanches herba and their metabolites based on intestinal bacteria and network pharmacology

Echinacoside (ECH), acteoside (ACT), and isoacteoside (ISAT), the typical phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs) in cistanches herba, have various pharmacological activities. However, the ECH, ACT and ISAT have extremely low oral bioavailability, which is related to their metabolism under the intestinal flora. Previous studies showed that intestinal metabolites were the hepatoprotective substances in vivo, but the research on whether PhGs has effects without intestinal bacteria has not been studied. In this paper, ECH, ACT and ISAT were incubated with human or rat intestinal bacteria for 36 h. After incubating with human bacteria for 36 h, three prototype compounds were not detected and were mainly biotransformed to 3-HPP and HT. In the network pharmacology, a total of 6 common targets were obtained by analysing the prototypes, the metabolites and the liver injury. It was found that the combinations of three metabolites and common targets were more stable than those of the prototypes and common targets by molecular docking. Meanwhile, hepatocellular apoptosis, proliferation, inflammation and oxidative responses might play important roles in the mechanisms of the metabolites exerting hepatoprotective activities. Then normal and pseudo-sterile mice experiments were adopted to further compare the hepatoprotective activities of prototypes and metabolites. Animal experiment results showed that the prototypes and the metabolites in the normal mice had significantly hepatoprotective activity. Interestingly, in the pseudo-germfree mice, the metabolites showed significant hepatoprotective effect, but the prototypes had not effect. It indicated that the prototype cannot exert liver protective activity without the effect of intestinal bacteria.

Cistanches Herba, from an endangered species to a big brand of Chinese medicine

Cistanches Herba (CH, Chinese name: Roucongrong), is a very precious, tonic Chinese medicine. Cistanche deserticola and Cistanche tubulosa are the two commonly used species and authenticated in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Due to the parasitic nature of Cistanche plants, the wild source was once endangered and listed in the Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. However, after continuously struggling in the past decades, CH has grown up to a big brand of Chinese medicine featured with the cultivation area as 1.26 million mu, the annual output as 6000 tons, and the related industrial output value as more than 20 billion China Yuan, attributing to large-scale cultivation and in-depth phytochemical and pharmacological investigations. Noteworthily, great achievements have reached concerning the research and development of relevant products, such as modern drugs, traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions, and dietary supplements. The current review summarizes the research progresses concerning the distribution and cultivation, phytochemistry, pharmacology, metabolism and product development of CH in the past decades, and the emerging challenges and developing prospects are discussed as well.

Enhancement of Kidney Invigorating Function in Mouse Model by Cistanches Herba Dried Rapidly at a Medium High Temperature

Cistanches Herba is a popular Traditional Chinese Medicine and functional food that is used to treat kidney yang deficiency (KYD) in China. In this study, we investigated the effects of different drying methods for Cistanches Herba on kidney invigoration and yang strengthening. We established a mouse model of KYD by intraperitoneal injection of hydrocortisone for 8 days. We dried slices of Cistanches Herba in the sun, in the shade, in a microwave, or in an oven at 40°C, 60°C, 80°C or 100°C, then prepared and administered extracts to the mice by gastric gavage. We measured and evaluated the echinacoside (ECH) and acteoside (ACT) contents of the extracts, as well as the mice's body weight; testicular, epididymal, hepatic, and renal coefficients; and semen quality. All the Cistanches Herba extracts, obtained using different drying techniques, improved symptoms of KYD diagnosis in mice. Among them, treatments with Cistanches Herba dried in a microwave and dried in an oven at 100°C had the best therapeutic effects. Our results suggested that the higher the total content of ECH and ACT in Cistanches Herba extracts, the better the effects of kidney invigoration and yang strengthening. In addition, shorter drying times at higher temperatures lead to the highest recoveries of active components, and Cistanche dried in the sun at a medium-high temperature can improve sperm quality in mice.

[Transformation pathways in methanol of echinacoside, a principal effective ingredient of Cistanches Herba]

Echinacoside (ECH) is one of the active ingredients in Cistanche Herba and the principal effective component of Memoregain© as well. Moreover, a new agent namely Naoqing Zhiming tablet, derived from ECH has been licensed for clinical trials. However, the knowledge regarding the stability of is limited, till now, initiating a significant barrier for its further development along with the clinical trials. Herein, we aim to in depth characterize the transformation pattern of ECH in methanol. When ECH was stored in methanol, two primary products (P1 and P2) could be observed in HPLC chromatogram. A home-made automated fraction collector was configured via employing two 2-phase/6-port electronic valves to prepare P1 and P2. Following ¹H-NMR and LC-MS/MS assays, P1 and P2 were unambiguously identified as acteoside and cistanoside A, respectively. Moreover, the existences of cis-ECH, cis-acteoside, and cis-cistanoside A were claimed after careful analysis of the ¹H-NMR spectra of ECH, P1 and P2. Above all, the primary transformation pathways of ECH in methanol included methylation as well as hydrolysis, and mild transformation could also be initiated by cis/trans- configuration transferring for the caffeoyl group. The findings obtained in current study are envisioned to provide useful insight for the further development of ECH and the impurity detection of Naoqing Zhiming tablet. Moreover, the automated fraction collector configured in current study is able to serve as a versatile tool for the collection of signals-of-interest within phytochemical evaluations and impurity isolation.

Cistanches Herba: An overview of its chemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics property

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cistanches Herba is an Orobanchaceae parasitic plant. As a commonly used Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), its traditional functions include treating kidney deficiency, impotence, female infertility and senile constipation. Chemical analysis of Cistanches Herba revealed that phenylethanoid glycosides, iridoids, lignans, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides were the main constituents. Pharmacological studies demonstrated that Cistanches Herba exhibited neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, hormonal balancing, anti-fatigue, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotection, anti-oxidative, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-tumor effects, etc. The aim of this review is to provide updated, comprehensive and categorized information on the phytochemistry, pharmacological research and pharmacokinetics studies of the major constituents of Cistanches Herba.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature search was conducted by systematic searching multiple electronic databases including SciFinder, ISI Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar and CNKI. Information was also collected from journals, local magazines, books, monographs.

RESULTS

To date, more than 100 compounds have been isolated from this genus, include phenylethanoid glycosides, carbohydrates, lignans, iridoids, etc. The crude extracts and isolated compounds have exhibited a wide range of in vitro and in vivo pharmacologic effects, such as neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotection, anti-oxidative, anti-bacterial, and anti-tumor effects. The phenylethanoid glycosides, echinacoside and acteoside have attracted the most attention for their significantly neuropharmacology effects. Pharmacokinetic studies of echinacoside and acteoside also have also been summarized.

CONCLUSION

Phenylethanoid glycosides have demonstrated wide pharmacological actions and have great clinical value if challenges such as poor bioavailability, fast and extensive metabolism are addressed. Apart from phenylethanoid glycosides, other constituents of Cistanches Herba, their pharmacological activities and underlying mechanisms are also need to be studied further.

Detection of Cistanches Herba (Rou Cong Rong) Medicinal Products Using Species-Specific Nucleotide Signatures

Cistanches Herba is a medicinal plant that has tonification properties and is commonly used in Asia. Owing to the imbalance between supply and demand, adulterants are frequently added for profit. However, there is no regulatory oversight because quality control tools are not sufficient for identifying heavily processed products. Thus, a novel molecular tool based on nucleotide signatures and species-specific primers was developed. The ITS2 regions from 251 Cistanches Herba and adulterant samples were sequenced. On the basis of SNP sites, four nucleotide signatures within 30~37 bp and six species-specific primers were developed, and they were validated by artificial experimental mixtures consisting of six different species and different ratios. This method was also applied to detect 66 Cistanches Herba products on the market, including extracts and Chinese patent medicines. The results demonstrated the utility of nucleotide signatures in identifying adulterants in mixtures. The market study revealed 36.4% adulteration: 19.7% involved adulteration with Cynomorium songaricum or Cistanche sinensis, and 16.7% involved substitution with Cy. songaricum, Ci. sinensis, or Boschniakia rossica. The results also revealed that Cy. songaricum was the most common adulterant in the market. Thus, we recommend the use of species-specific nucleotide signatures for regulating adulteration and verifying the quality assurance of medicinal product supply chains, especially for processed products whose DNA is degraded.

Human Gastrointestinal Metabolism of the Cistanches Herba Water Extract in Vitro: Elucidation of the Metabolic Profile Based on Comprehensive Metabolite Identification in Gastric Juice, Intestinal Juice, Human Intestinal Bacteria, and Intestinal Microsomes

Cistanches Herba is taken orally as a health food supplement and medicinal plant in Asian countries. It consists of the stems of Cistanche deserticola (CD) and Cistanche tubulosa (CT). The gastrointestinal metabolism of the multiple components contained in Cistanches Herba is crucial for the discovery of bioactive constituents. This study aims to elucidate the comprehensive metabolic profile of the Cistanches Herba water extract by simulating human gastrointestinal metabolism in vitro independently and sequentially using four models: gastric juice, intestinal juice, human intestinal bacteria, and human intestinal microsomes. A total of 35 and 18 metabolites were characterized from CD and CT water extracts, respectively. These metabolites were formed through reduction, methylation, dimethylation, deglycosylation, decaffeoyl, derhamnose, dehydrogenation, and glucuronidation. The difference in metabolites of the Cistanches Herba water extract and single compounds and the difference in metabolites of CD and CT water extracts were caused by the oligosaccharides and polysaccharides in Cistanches Herba.

Cistanches Herba: A Neuropharmacology Review

Cistanches Herba (family Orobanchaceae), commonly known as “desert ginseng” or Rou Cong Rong, is a global genus and commonly used for its neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidative, kidney impotence, laxative, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-tumor effects in traditional herbal formulations in North Africa, Arabic, and Asian countries. The major bioactive compound present in this plant is phenylethanoid glycosides. In recent years, there has been great important in scientific investigation of the neuropharmacological effects of the bioactive compounds. The in vitro and in vivo studies suggests these compounds demonstrate neuropharmacological activities against a wide range of complex nervous system diseases which occurs through different mechanisms include improving immunity function and kidney aging, anti-lipid peroxidation, scavenging free radical, inducing the activation of caspase-3 and caspase-8. This review aims to summaries the various neuropharmacological effects and mechanisms of Cistanches Herba extracts and related compounds, including its efficacy as a cure for Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease with reference to the published literature. Which provides guidance for further research on the clinical application of Cistanches Herba.

Effect of Cistanches Herba aqueous extract on bone loss in ovariectomized rat

To assess the ability of traditional Chinese medicine Cistanches Herba extract (CHE) to prevent bone loss in the ovariectomized (OVX) rat, Cistanches Herba extract (CHE) was administered intragastrically to the rats. Female rats were anesthetized with pentobarbital sodium (40 mg kg(-1), i.p.), and their ovaries were removed bilaterally. The rats in the sham-operated group were anesthetized, laparotomized, and sutured without removing their ovaries. After 1 week of recovery from surgery, the OVX rats were randomly divided into three groups and orally treated with H(2)O (OVX group) or CHE (100 or 200 mg kg(-1) daily) for 3 months. The sham-operated group (n = 8) was orally treated with H(2)O. After 3 months, the total body bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), Bone biomechanical index, blood mineral levels and blood antioxidant enzymes activities were examined in sham-operated, ovariectomized and Cistanches Herba extract treated rats. Results showed that Cistanches Herba extract treatment significantly dose-dependently enhanced bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), maximum load, displacement at maximum load, stress at maximum load, load at auto break, displacement at auto break, and stress at auto break, and blood antioxidant enzymes activities, decreased blood Ca, Zn and Cu levels compared to the OVX group. This experiment demonstrates that the administration of Cistanches Herba extract to ovariectomized rats reverses bone loss and prevents osteoporosis.