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Morcillo-Parra MÁ, González B, Beltran G, Mas A, Torija MJ. Melatonin and glycolytic protein interactions are related to yeast fermentative capacity. Food Microbiol 2020; 87:103398. [PMID: 31948610 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2019.103398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin is an indole amine that interacts with some proteins in mammals, such as calreticulin, calmodulin or sirtuins. In yeast, melatonin is synthetized and interacts with glycolytic proteins during alcoholic fermentation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Due to its importance as an antioxidant molecule in both Saccharomyces and non-Saccharomyces yeasts, the aim of this study was to determine the intracellular and extracellular synthesis profiles of melatonin in four non-Saccharomyces strains (Torulaspora delbrueckii, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Starmeralla bacillaris and Metschnikowia pulcherrima) and to confirm whether glycolytic enzymes can also interact with this molecule in non-conventional yeast cells. Melatonin from fermentation samples was analyzed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, and proteins bound to melatonin were immunopurified by melatonin-IgG-Dynabeads. Melatonin was produced in a similar pattern in all non-Saccharomyces yeast, with M. pulcherrima and S. bacillaris being the highest producers. However, melatonin only bound to proteins in two non-conventional yeasts, S. bacillaris and T. delbrueckii, which specifically had higher fermentative capacities. Sequence analysis showed that most proteins shared high levels of homology with glycolytic enzymes, but an RNA-binding protein, the elongation alpha factor, which is related to mitochondria, was also identified. This study reports for the first time the interaction of melatonin with proteins inside non-Saccharomyces yeast cells. These results reinforce the possible role of melatonin as a signal molecule, likely related to fermentation metabolism and provide a new perspective for understanding its role in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Ángeles Morcillo-Parra
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Beatriz González
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Gemma Beltran
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Albert Mas
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - María-Jesús Torija
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007, Tarragona, Spain.
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Morcillo-Parra MÁ, Valera MJ, Beltran G, Mas A, Torija MJ. Glycolytic Proteins Interact With Intracellular Melatonin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2424. [PMID: 31708896 PMCID: PMC6821644 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Melatonin is a bioactive compound that is present in fermented beverages and synthesized by yeast during alcoholic fermentation. Many studies have shown that melatonin interacts with some mammalian proteins, such as sirtuins or orphan receptor family proteins. The aim of this study was to determine the intracellular synthesis profile of melatonin in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and to identify the proteins that may interact with this molecule in yeast cells. Melatonin from fermentation samples was analyzed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, and proteins bound to melatonin were immunopurified by melatonin-IgG-Dynabeads. Melatonin was produced intracellularly in the lag phase of yeast growth and was exported to the extracellular media during the stationary phase. During this period, melatonin was bound to six proteins with molecular weights from 55 to 35 kDa. Sequence analysis showed that most proteins shared high levels of homology with glycolytic enzymes. An RNA-binding protein was also identified, the elongation alpha factor, which is related to mitochondria. This study reports for the first time the interaction of melatonin and proteins inside yeast cells. These results highlight the possible role of melatonin as a signal molecule and provide a new perspective for understanding its role in yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - María José Valera
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Facultad d'Enologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Gemma Beltran
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Facultad d'Enologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Albert Mas
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Facultad d'Enologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - María-Jesús Torija
- Department de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Facultad d'Enologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
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Makarov VA, Tikhomirova NK, Savvateeva LV, Petushkova AI, Serebryakova MV, Baksheeva VE, Gorokhovets NV, Zernii EY, Zamyatnin AA. Novel applications of modification of thiol enzymes and redox-regulated proteins using S-methyl methanethiosulfonate (MMTS). Biochim Biophys Acta Proteins Proteom 2019; 1867:140259. [PMID: 31376523 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2019.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
S-Methyl methanethiosulfonate (MMTS) is used in experimental biochemistry for alkylating thiol groups of protein cysteines. Its applications include mainly trapping of natural thiol-disulfide states of redox-sensitive proteins and proteins which have undergone S-nitrosylation. The reagent can also be employed as an inhibitor of enzymatic activity, since nucleophilic cysteine thiolates are commonly present at active sites of various enzymes. The advantage of using MMTS for this purpose is the reversibility of the formation of methylthio mixed disulfides, compared to irreversible alkylation using conventional agents. Additional benefits include good accessibility of MMTS to buried protein cysteines due to its small size and the simplicity of the protection and deprotection procedures. In this study we report examples of MMTS application in experiments involving oxidoreductase (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, GAPDH), redox-regulated protein (recoverin) and cysteine protease (triticain-α). We demonstrate that on the one hand MMTS can modify functional cysteines in the thiol enzyme GAPDH, thereby preventing thiol oxidation and reversibly inhibiting the enzyme, while on the other hand it can protect the redox-sensitive thiol group of recoverin from oxidation and such modification produces no impact on the activity of the protein. Furthermore, using the example of the papain-like enzyme triticain-α, we report a novel application of MMTS as a protector of the primary structure of active cysteine protease during long-term purification and refolding procedures. Based on the data, we propose new lines of MMTS employment in research, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology for reversible switching off of undesirable activity and antioxidant protection of proteins with functional thiol groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir A Makarov
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Natalia K Tikhomirova
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Lyudmila V Savvateeva
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Anastasiia I Petushkova
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Marina V Serebryakova
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Viktoriia E Baksheeva
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Neonila V Gorokhovets
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Evgeni Yu Zernii
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey A Zamyatnin
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trubetskaya str., 8, bld. 2, Moscow 119991, Russia; Lomonosov Moscow State University, Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, 119992 Moscow, Russia.
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Xiong Y, Cheng S, Wu X, Ren Y, Xie X. Changes of B cell subsets in central pathological process of autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. BMC Immunol 2019; 20:24. [PMID: 31286875 PMCID: PMC6613246 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-019-0301-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating and autoimmune disease and its immune response is not fully elucidated. This study was conducted to examine the pathological changes and B cell subsets in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice, and analyze the expression of triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) and GADPH to define the role of B cell subsets in the disease. Results Female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into EAE group (n = 18) and control (n = 18). During the experiments, the weight and nerve function scores were determined. The proportions of B cell subsets in the peripheral blood were measured by flow cytometry. Seven, 18 and 30 days after immunization, the brain and spinal cord tissues were examined for the infiltration of inflammatory cells using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) HE staining and the demyelination using Luxol fast blue staining. The expression of B cell-related proteins was detected immunohistochemistrially and the expression of antigenic TPI and GADPH was analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HE staining showed that mice had more severe EAE 18 d than 7 d after modelling, while the symptoms were significantly relieved at 30 d. The results were consistent with the weight measurements and neural function scores. Immunohistochemistry studies showed that B cells aggregated in the spinal cord, but not much in the brain. Flow cytometry studies showed that there were more B cells in control than in EAE models from day 7 and the difference was narrowed at day 30. The level of plasma cells increased continuously, reached the top at day 21 and obviously declined at day 30. On other hand, the numbers of memory B cells increased gradually over the experimental period. The numbers of plasma and memory B cells were similar between the control and EAE mice. ELISA data revealed that the brain contents of TPI and GAPDH were higher in EAE mice than in control at day 7, while at day 18, the levels were reversed. Conclusions In the central pathological process of EAE mice, B cells exert role through the mechanism other than producing antibodies and the levels of brain TPI and GADPH are related to the severity of autoimmune induced-damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingqiong Xiong
- Graduate School, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China.,Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, 153 Aiguo road, Nanchang, China.,Institute of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China
| | - Shaomin Cheng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jiangxi University of traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaomu Wu
- Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, 153 Aiguo road, Nanchang, China.,Institute of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China
| | - Yue Ren
- Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, 153 Aiguo road, Nanchang, China.,Institute of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China.,Key Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China
| | - Xufang Xie
- Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, 153 Aiguo road, Nanchang, China. .,Institute of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China. .,Key Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Jiangxi People's Hospital, Nanchang, China.
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Lassance JM, Svensson GP, Kozlov MV, Francke W, Löfstedt C. Pheromones and Barcoding Delimit Boundaries between Cryptic Species in the Primitive Moth Genus Eriocrania (Lepidoptera: Eriocraniidae). J Chem Ecol 2019; 45:429-439. [PMID: 31152352 PMCID: PMC6570776 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-019-01076-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Animal classification is primarily based on morphological characters, even though these may not be the first to diverge during speciation. In many cases, closely related taxa are actually difficult to distinguish based on morphological characters alone, especially when there is no substantial niche separation. As a consequence, the diversity of certain groups is likely to be underestimated. Lepidoptera –moths and butterflies– represent the largest group of herbivorous insects. The extensive diversification in the group is generally assumed to have its origin in the spectacular radiation of flowering plants and the resulting abundance of ecological niches. However, speciation can also occur without strong ecological divergence. For example, reproductive isolation can evolve as the result of divergence in mate preference and the associated pheromone communication system. We combined pheromone trapping and genetic analysis to elucidate the evolutionary relationships within a complex of primitive moth species (Lepidoptera: Eriocraniidae). Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers provided evidence that Eriocrania semipurpurella, as currently defined by morphological characters, includes three cryptic species in Northern and Western Europe. Male moths of these cryptic species, as well as of the closely related E. sangii, exhibited relative specificity in terms of their attraction to specific ratios of two major pheromone components, (2S,6Z)-nonen-2-ol and (2R,6Z)-nonen-2-ol. Our data suggest strong assortative mating in these species in the absence of apparent niche separation, indicating that Eriocrania moths may represent an example of non-ecological speciation. Finally, our study argues in favour of combining pheromone investigations and DNA barcoding as powerful tools for identifying and delimitating species boundaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Lassance
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, SE-22362, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Glenn P Svensson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, SE-22362, Lund, Sweden
| | - Mikhail V Kozlov
- Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Wittko Francke
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christer Löfstedt
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, SE-22362, Lund, Sweden.
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Tai Z, Lin Y, He Y, Huang J, Guo J, Yang L, Zhang G, Wang F. Luteolin sensitizes the antiproliferative effect of interferon α/β by activation of Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription pathway signaling through protein kinase A-mediated inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 in cancer cells. Cell Signal 2013; 26:619-28. [PMID: 24333668 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2013.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
New negative regulators of interferon (IFN) signaling, preferably with tissue specificity, are needed to develop therapeutic means to enhance the efficacy of type I IFNs (IFN-α/β) and reduce their side effects. We conducted cell-based screening for IFN signaling enhancer and discovered that luteolin, a natural flavonoid, sensitized the antiproliferative effect of IFN-α in hepatoma HepG2 cells and cervical carcinoma HeLa cells. Luteolin promoted IFN-β-induced Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway activation by enhancing the phosphorylation of Jak1, Tyk2, and STAT1/2, thereby promoting STAT1 accumulation in the nucleus and endogenous IFN-α-regulated gene expression. Of interest, inhibition of phosphodiesterase (PDE) abolished the effect of IFN-β and luteolin on STAT1 phosphorylation. Luteolin also increased the cAMP-degrading activity of PDE bound with type I interferon receptor 2 (IFNAR2) and decreased the intracellular cAMP level, indicating that luteolin may act on the JAK/STAT pathway via PDE. Protein kinase A (PKA) was found to negatively regulate IFN-β-induced JAK/STAT signaling, and its inhibitory effect was counteracted by luteolin. Pull-down and immunoprecipitation assays revealed that type II PKA interacted with IFNAR2 via the receptor for activated C-kinase 1 (RACK-1), and such interaction was inhibited by luteolin. Src homology domain 2 containing tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP-2) was further found to mediate the inhibitory effect of PKA on the JAK/STAT pathway. These data suggest that PKA/PDE-mediated cAMP signaling, integrated by RACK-1 to IFNAR2, may negatively regulate IFN signaling through SHP-2. Inhibition of this signaling may provide a new way to sensitize the efficacy of IFN-α/β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengfu Tai
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuan Lin
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China; Key Laboratory of Bio-resources and Eco-environment (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yujiao He
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Junmei Huang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiajia Guo
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Lijuan Yang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China
| | - Guolin Zhang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China; Chinese Academy of Sciences Sichuan Translational Medicine Research Hospital, Chengdu, China.
| | - Fei Wang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China; Chinese Academy of Sciences Sichuan Translational Medicine Research Hospital, Chengdu, China.
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Gałecki P, Gałecka E, Maes M, Orzechowska A, Berent D, Talarowska M, Bobińska K, Lewiński A, Bieńkiewicz M, Szemraj J. Vascular endothelial growth factor gene (VEGFA) polymorphisms may serve as prognostic factors for recurrent depressive disorder development. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 45:117-24. [PMID: 23673188 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recurrent depressive disorder (rDD) is a multifactorial disease. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is one of the factors that have been suggested to play a role in the etiology and/or development of this disease. Limited information related to the role of VEGFA gene polymorphism in depressive disorder is available. The aim of the study was to analyze the association between VEGFA gene polymorphisms (+405G/C; rs2010963, +936C/T; rs 3025039), VEGFA gene expression, and its serum protein levels in rDD in the Caucasian population. In the current study, 268 patients and 200 healthy controls of the Caucasian origin were involved. Genotyping and gene expression were performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used for detection of circulating serum VEGF levels. The distribution of VEGFA polymorphism +405G/C differed significantly between rDD patients and healthy subjects. The results of this study indicated that the C allele and CC genotype of VEGFA are risk factors for rDD. Haplotypes CC and TG are the important factors for depression development. Further, VEGFA mRNA expression and VEGF levels were higher in rDD patients than in controls. The VEGFA gene polymorphism may serve as a prognostic factor for rDD development. Our study showed higher levels of both VEGFA mRNA in the peripheral blood cells and serum VEGF in patients diagnosed with rDD than in healthy controls. The obtained results suggest VEGF and the gene encoding the molecule play a role in the etiology of the disease and should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Gałecki
- Department of Adult Psychiatry, Medical University of Łódź, Poland.
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Yang CG, Wang XL, Tian J, Liu W, Wu F, Jiang M, Wen H. Evaluation of reference genes for quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis of gene expression in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Gene 2013; 527:183-92. [PMID: 23792389 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2013.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) has been used frequently to study gene expression related to fish immunology. In such studies, a stable reference gene should be selected to correct the expression of the target gene. In this study, seven candidate reference genes (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GADPH), ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (UBCE), 18S ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA), beta-2-microglobulin (B2M), elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1A), tubulin alpha chain-like (TUBA) and beta actin (ACTB)), were selected to analyze their stability and normalization in seven tissues (liver, spleen, kidney, brain, heart, muscle and intestine) of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) challenged with Streptococcus agalactiae or Streptococcus iniae, respectively. The results showed that all the candidate reference genes exhibited tissue-dependent transcriptional variations. With PBS injection as a control, UBCE was the most stable and suitable single reference gene in the intestine, liver, brain, kidney, and spleen after S. iniae infection, and in the liver, kidney, and spleen after S. agalactiae infection. EF1A was the most suitable in heart and muscle after S. iniae or S. agalactiae infection. GADPH was the most suitable gene in intestine and brain after S. agalactiae infection. In normal conditions, UBCE and 18S rRNA were the most stably expressed genes across the various tissues. These results showed that for RT-qPCR analysis of tilapia, selecting two or more reference genes may be more suitable for cross-tissue analysis of gene expression.
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