A scoping review of vasculitis as an immune-related adverse event from checkpoint inhibitor therapy of cancer: Unraveling the complexities at the intersection of immunology and vascular pathology

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Vasculitis as an immune-related adverse event (irAE) from checkpoint inhibitor therapy (ICI) to treat cancer is a rare clinical event, and little is known regarding its nosology, clinical manifestations, or response to treatment and outcomes.

METHODS

To address these gaps, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) framework to further define this complication. Two independent PUBMED searches in September and November of 2022 revealed 127 publications with 37 excluded from title by relevance, 43 excluded by article type, and 23 excluded due to lack of biopsy results, or biopsy negative for vasculitis. Twenty-nine documented cases from 24 publications were included for final analysis. Basic demographics, ICI details, timing of onset of vasculitis symptoms, irAE treatment and outcomes were collected. The vasculitides were classified using 2022 ACR/EULAR Vasculitis Classification Criteria as well as 2012 Revised Chapel-Hill Nomenclature. Adaptations from Naidoo et al. 2023 [1] consensus definitions for irAEs were used and efforts were made to classify steroid-responsive versus unresponsive irAEs.

RESULTS

Of the 29 cases reviewed, the average age of patients was 62.1 ± 11.0, composed of 58.6 % (n = 17) male and 41.3 % (n = 12) female. Prominent cancer types were lung cancer (41.4 %; n = 12), melanoma (41.4 %; n = 12), and renal cancer (10.3 %; n = 3), with majority being stage 4 (75.9 %, n = 22) and stage 3 (10.3 %, n = 3). Only 8 cases met the ACR/EULAR criteria, and by Chapel-Hill Nomenclature, approximately a third were small-vessel vasculitis (31.0 %; n = 9) with n = 4 positive for ANCA. Most biopsies were taken from the skin (37.9 %, n = 11) and kidney (24.1 %, n = 7). Patients were either treated with single (65.5 %, n = 19), dual (17.2 %; n = 5), or sequential (17.2 %; n = 5) ICI regimen which included anti-PD-1 therapy in all but one case, with mean of 8.7 ± 10.5 cycles received. Mean time to onset of symptoms from start of ICI was 7.2 ± 7.8 months, with 55.2 % occurring >3 months since the initial immunotherapy. Vasculitis treatment included glucocorticoids in 96 % of cases and immunotherapy was often discontinued (44.8 %; n = 13). Clinical improvement of irAE was documented in 86.2 % (n = 25). Data were missing in terms of fate of ICI (34.5 %; n = 10) and tumor outcomes (41.4 %; n = 12). Cancer progressed in 20.7 % (n = 6), stable in 34.5 % (n = 10) cases, and 6 patients died of all-causes.

CONCLUSION

Vasculitis as an irAE appears clinically heterogeneous and rare. Among reported cases with adequate documentation, vasculitis is of delayed onset following the initiation of immunotherapy. Outcomes of ICI-vasculitis were generally favorable, responding to glucocorticoids and immunotherapy withdrawal. There is an urgent need for more standardized reporting of rare irAEs such as vasculitis to clarify clinical risks, classification, relationship to immunotherapy and outcomes.

Multiple Sclerosis Pathogenesis and Updates in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

In this review, we provide a comprehensive update on current scientific advances and emerging therapeutic approaches in the field of multiple sclerosis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a common disorder characterized by inflammation and degeneration within the central nervous system (CNS). MS is the leading cause of non-traumatic disability in the young adult population. Through ongoing research, an improved understanding of the disease underlying mechanisms and contributing factors has been achieved. As a result, therapeutic advancements and interventions have been developed specifically targeting the inflammatory components that influence disease outcome. Recently, a new type of immunomodulatory treatment, known as Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors, has surfaced as a promising tool to combat disease outcomes. Additionally, there is a renewed interested in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as a major potentiator of MS. Current research efforts are focused on addressing the gaps in our understanding of the pathogenesis of MS, particularly with respect to non-inflammatory drivers. Significant and compelling evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of MS is complex and requires a comprehensive, multilevel intervention strategy. This review aims to provide an overview of MS pathophysiology and highlights the most recent advances in disease-modifying therapies and other therapeutic interventions.

Encephalitis and Meningitis: Indications for Intervention

Meningitis and encephalitis are characterized by inflammation of the meninges and brain parenchyma, respectively. The blood-brain barrier normally acts as a protective barrier against inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS), but its compromise requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent morbidity and mortality. Optimizing therapy for meningitis and encephalitis can expedite resolution of symptoms, mitigating the risk of neuronal injury and minimizing potential long-term neurological sequelae. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the etiology and pathophysiology of meningitis and encephalitis, discussing the diagnostic criteria, and emphasizing the clinical indications for treatments, including current treatment strategies, and emerging therapeutic approaches.

Immunogenicity of the hepatitis B vaccine adjuvanted with AS04C in patients with biological therapies

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis B vaccination is necessary for patients with biologic therapies because of the immunomodulatory effect of these drugs. Due to the elevated use of these therapies in the latest years, the research for new vaccination regimens and the improvement of the current ones is essential. New adjuvants like AS04C might be a potential strategy to improve immune response. Hepatitis B vaccine adjuvanted with AS04C has not been studied in this population before. We analyzed the immunogenicity of an adjuvanted hepatitis B vaccine in patients with biologic therapies. Variables that might affect vaccine response were also evaluated.

METHODS

Analytic observational retrospective cohort study performed between January 2016 and September 2018. 301 patients under biological treatment aged from 18 years were included. Patients received 4 doses of hepatitis B adjuvanted vaccine (Fendrix®) in a 0-1-2-6 month immunization schedule. Several sociodemographic, clinical and pharmacological variables were evaluated. The outcome variable was measured as the antibody titers (anti-HBs). The geometric mean of titers (GMT) as a measure for the central tendency was calculated from these values.

RESULTS

The immunization schedule of the hepatitis B vaccine adjuvanted with AS04C demonstrated high levels of seroconversion with 82.1 % (95 % CI, 77.6-86.6) of vaccinated patients seroconverting after primary vaccination and achieving 89.0 % (95 % IC, 85.3-92.7) after the booster doses for non-responders. The use of corticosteroid therapy and high doses of them, age over 60 years and the main diagnosis were associated with lower seroconversion rates and lower anti-HBs titers.

CONCLUSIONS

The hepatitis B vaccine adjuvanted with AS04C (Fendrix®) produces an adequate immune response in patients with autoimmune diseases and immunosuppressive and/or immunomodulating therapies. This immunization schedule is proposed as a very suitable and adapted option for the protection of patients with autoimmune diseases under active biological therapies.

Design of Effisayil™ 2: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study of Spesolimab in Preventing Flares in Patients with Generalized Pustular Psoriasis

INTRODUCTION

Generalized pustular psoriasis (GPP) is a rare autoinflammatory skin disease characterized by flares of widespread erythema with sterile pustules, and can be relapsing with recurrent flares, or persistent with intermittent flares. Spesolimab, a humanized anti-interleukin-36 (IL-36) receptor monoclonal antibody, targets the key IL-36 pathogenetic pathway in GPP. A previous study showed that spesolimab treatment led to rapid pustular and skin clearance in patients with GPP flares, which was sustained for up to 12 weeks. This study investigates the long-term effects of spesolimab on GPP flares, for which no specific treatments are currently available. The Effisayil™ 2 study will assess whether maintenance treatment with subcutaneous spesolimab prevents the occurrence of GPP flares and determine the optimal dosing regimen to achieve this aim.

METHODS

Patients will have a documented history of GPP with a Generalized Pustular Psoriasis Physician Global Assessment (GPPGA) score of 0 or 1 (clear or almost clear) at screening and randomization. Patients will be randomized 1:1:1:1 to three groups receiving a 600-mg subcutaneous loading dose of spesolimab followed by a 300-mg maintenance dose administered every 4 or 12 weeks, or a 300-mg loading dose followed by a 150-mg maintenance dose administered every 12 weeks, and one group receiving placebo, for 48 weeks. The primary endpoint is time to first GPP flare. If a patient experiences a GPP flare during the randomized maintenance treatment period, an open-label intravenous dose of 900-mg spesolimab will be administered, with an option for a second intravenous dose after 1 week.

CONCLUSIONS

Effisayil™ 2 is the first placebo-controlled study in patients with GPP to investigate whether maintenance treatment with spesolimab can prevent flares and provide sustained disease control. This study will provide valuable insights on the long-term management of patients with this potentially life-threatening skin disease.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04399837.

The influence of disease-modifying therapy on hidden disability burden in people with newly diagnosed relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

In addition to motor disability, "hidden disability" such as depression, anxiety, fatigue, sleep disturbance, cognitive impairment and pain is a major complaint of people with multiple sclerosis. We explored changes in hidden disability burden in the early post-diagnostic period and examined the hypothesis that disease modifying therapies have a beneficial effect on hidden disability burden.

METHODS

Adults with recently diagnosed (< 6 months) relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (n = 440, mean age 37.4 ± 10.4, 76% female), from a national multicentre cohort study (FutureMS) underwent testing with clinical and neuropsychological instruments as well as brain MRI at baseline and after 12-months. Disease modifying therapies were only started after baseline assessment and were classified into injectables (n = 70, interferons, glatiramer acetate), other DMTs (n = 215) and no DMT (n = 117, reference). Sensitivity analyses were undertaken using alternative classifications (disease modifying therapy vs none, and a 3-category system). We performed latent transition analysis with hidden disability burden as the latent variable including propensity score weights.

RESULTS

We identified three classes with low (58%), moderate (25%) and high (17%) hidden disability burden. 70% did not transition ("unchanged", reference), 26% transitioned into a lower burden class ("improvement") and 4% transitioned into a higher burden class ("worsening"). Median treatment duration was 11 months (IQR 9-12). Injectables [OR 1.3 (95%CIs 0.7, 2.3); P = 0.4] and other DMTs [OR 1.4 (95%CIs 0.9, 2.1); P = 0.2] were not associated with significant change in hidden disability burden in either direction ("improvement" or "worsening"). In the alternative 3-category classification, category 2 treatment (fingolimod, cladribine, n = 22) was associated with improvement [OR 4.3 (2.6, 7.0); P < 0.001].

CONCLUSION

Hidden disability was present in most newly diagnosed people with multiple sclerosis. The majority remained unchanged and approximately a quarter improved over the immediate post-diagnostic period. Disease modifying therapy had no significant influence on hidden disability burden in the study period of one year following diagnosis. The trend towards favourable outcomes with fingolimod and cladribine should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size. Our exploratory data are observational, with scope for attendant biases, but highlight the need for further study including longer-term evaluation as well as randomised trials for non-motor disability.

Systematic review of risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and severity of COVID-19 with therapies approved to treat multiple sclerosis

There is growing concern that multiple sclerosis (MS) patients on certain therapies may be at higher risk for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We conducted a systematic literature review to examine the available data on U.S. therapies approved to treat MS and the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe COVID-19 outcomes. We conducted searches in PubMed, Embase, and the WHO COVID-19 database through May 2, 2021, and retrieved articles describing clinical data on therapies approved to treat MS and the risk of infection with SARS-CoV-2 or the effects of such therapies on clinical outcomes of COVID-19. The literature search identified a total of 411 articles: 97 in PubMed, 227 in Embase, and 87 in the WHO database. After excluding duplicates and screening, we identified 15 articles of interest. We identified an additional article through a broader secondary weekly search in PubMed. Thus, ultimately, we reviewed 16 observational studies. Available data, which suggest that MS patients treated with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies may be at increased risk for severe COVID-19, are subject to relevant limitations. Generally, studies did not identify increased risk for COVID-19 worsening with other therapies approved to treat MS. Based on observational data, biological plausibility, novelty of the drug-event association, and public health implications in a subpopulation with potential impaired response to the COVID-19 vaccines, this safety signal merits further monitoring.

Effect of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in MS patients treated with disease modifying therapies

BACKGROUND

In patients with Multiple Sclerosis (pwMS) disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) affects immune response to antigens. Therefore, post-vaccination serological assessments are needed to evaluate the effect of the vaccine on SARS-CoV-2 antibody response.

METHODS

We designed a prospective multicenter cohort study enrolling pwMS who were scheduled for SARS-Cov-2 vaccination with mRNA vaccines (BNT162b2, Pfizer/BioNTech,Inc or mRNA-1273, Moderna Tx,Inc). A blood collection before the first vaccine dose and 4 weeks after the second dose was planned, with a centralized serological assessment (electrochemiluminescence immunoassay, ECLIA, Roche-Diagnostics). The log-transform of the antibody levels was analyzed by multivariable linear regression.

FINDINGS

780 pwMS (76% BNT162b2 and 24% mRNA-1273) had pre- and 4-week post-vaccination blood assessments. 87 (11·2%) were untreated, 154 (19·7%) on ocrelizumab, 25 (3·2%) on rituximab, 85 (10·9%) on fingolimod, 25 (3·2%) on cladribine and 404 (51·7%) on other DMTs. 677 patients (86·8%) had detectable post-vaccination SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. At multivariable analysis, the antibody levels of patients on ocrelizumab (201-fold decrease (95%CI=128-317), p < 0·001), fingolimod (26-fold decrease (95%CI=16-42), p < 0·001) and rituximab (20-fold decrease (95%CI=10-43), p < 0·001) were significantly reduced as compared to untreated patients. Vaccination with mRNA-1273 resulted in a systematically 3·25-fold higher antibody level (95%CI=2·46-4·27) than with the BNT162b2 vaccine (p < 0·001). The antibody levels on anti-CD20 therapies correlated to the time since last infusion, and rituximab had longer intervals (mean=386 days) than ocrelizumab patients (mean=129 days).

INTERPRETATION

In pwMS, anti-CD20 treatment and fingolimod led to a reduced humoral response to mRNA-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. As mRNA-1273 elicits 3·25-higher antibody levels than BNT162b2, this vaccine may be preferentially considered for patients under anti-CD20 treatment or fingolimod. Combining our data with those on the cellular immune response to vaccines, and including clinical follow-up, will contribute to better define the most appropriate SARS-CoV-2 vaccine strategies in the context of DMTs and MS.

FUNDING

FISM[2021/Special-Multi/001]; Italian Ministry of Health'Progetto Z844A 5 × 1000'.

Molecularly targeted therapies for relapsed and refractory peripheral T-cell lymphomas

The advent of molecularly targeted agents for patients with peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL) has begun to change the therapeutic landscape in these diseases, especially for patients with relapsed or refractory disease. These agents, grounded in targeting numerous pathways or alterations related to disease pathogenesis, have shown promise across many PTCL subhistologies. Aided by significant advances in experimental techniques related to molecular biology, epigenetics, and immunology, more recent studies have begun elucidating mediators of resistance, both intrinsic and acquired, to inform future therapeutic advances. Defining and targeting these escape mechanisms through rational combination approaches will likely be important to continue to build on these promising advances and further improve clinical outcomes for patients facing PTCL.

A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis of Randomized Data on Efficacy of Novel Therapy Combinations in Patients with Lenalidomide-refractory Multiple Myeloma

INTRODUCTION

Lenalidomide use in nearly all induction regimens for multiple myeloma (MM) has led to the treatment of lenalidomide-refractory disease becoming one of the most important clinical questions in its treatment. Given the lack of direct comparisons of treatment regimens for lenalidomide-refractory MM, we used a systematic review to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that included lenalidomide-refractory subgroup analysis.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review to identify RCTs for MM that enrolled patients with lenalidomide-refractory disease, then performed a network meta-analysis (NMA) using random effects model to compare regimens.

RESULTS

We identified 123 discrete RCTs, of which 7 reported primary outcomes for lenalidomide-refractory MM. These were linked in 2 discrete networks totaling 1698 lenalidomide-refractory patients. Network 1 compared bortezomib (bort)/dexamethasone (dex) versus other treatments, and analysis showed triplet therapy with pomalidomide (pom)/bort/dex (hazard ratios [HR] 0.65, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.50-0.84), daratumumab (dara)/bort/dex (HR 0.36, 95% CI, 0.21-0.63), and dara/carfilzomib (carf)/dex (HR 0.38, 95% CI, 0.21-0.69) as more effective than bort/dex. Network 2 compared dex versus other treatments, and analysis showed pom/dex (HR 0.50, 95% CI, 0.40-0.62), isatuximab (isa)/pom/dex (HR 0.30, 95% CI, 0.20-0.44), and elotuzumab (elo)/pom/dex (HR 0.27, 95% CI, 0.16-0.45) as more effective than dex. Within each network, monoclonal antibody (mAb)-containing regimens had lower HRs and higher P-scores than non-mAb regimens, indicating higher likelihood of these regimens being most efficacious.

CONCLUSION

The results of our NMA demonstrated that for lenalidomide-refractory MM, triplet therapy containing mAbs are superior. There is need for further RCTs to better ascertain the best standard of care for these patients.

TREatment of ATopic eczema (TREAT) Registry Taskforce: protocol for an international Delphi exercise to identify a core set of domains and domain items for national atopic eczema registries

Background

Patients with moderate-to-severe atopic eczema (AE) often require photo- or systemic immunomodulatory therapies to induce disease remission and maintain long-term control. The current evidence to guide clinical management is small, despite the frequent and often off-label use of these treatments. Registries of patients on photo- and systemic immunomodulatory therapies could fill this gap, and the collection of a core set concerning these therapies in AE will allow direct comparisons across registries as well as data sharing and pooling.

Using an eDelphi approach, the international TREatment of ATopic eczema (TREAT) Registry Taskforce aims to seek consensus between key stakeholders internationally on a core set of domains and domain items for AE patient registries with a research focus that collect data of children and adults on photo- and systemic immunomodulatory therapies.

Methods/design

Participants from six stakeholder groups will be invited: doctors, nurses, non-clinical researchers, patients, as well as industry and regulatory body representatives. The eDelphi will comprise three sequential online rounds, requesting participants to rate the importance of each proposed domain and domain items. Participants will be able to add domains and domain items to the proposed list in round 1. A final consensus meeting will be held with representatives of each stakeholder group.

Discussion

Identifying a uniform core set of domains and domain items to be captured by AE patient registries will increase the utility of individual registries, and provide greater insight into the effectiveness, safety and cost-effectiveness of photo- and systemic immunomodulatory therapies to guide clinical management across dermatology centres and country borders.

Trial registration

Not applicable. This eDelphi study was registered in the Core Outcome Measures for Effectiveness Trials (COMET) database.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1765-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.