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Sreenivasan CC, Liu R, Gao R, Guo Y, Hause BM, Thomas M, Naveed A, Clement T, Rausch D, Christopher-Hennings J, Nelson E, Druce J, Zhao M, Kaushik RS, Li Q, Sheng Z, Wang D, Li F. Influenza C and D Viruses Demonstrated a Differential Respiratory Tissue Tropism in a Comparative Pathogenesis Study in Guinea Pigs. J Virol 2023; 97:e0035623. [PMID: 37199648 PMCID: PMC10308911 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00356-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza C virus (ICV) is increasingly associated with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children and its disease severity is worse than the influenza B virus, but similar to influenza A virus associated CAP. Despite the ubiquitous infection landscape of ICV in humans, little is known about its replication and pathobiology in animals. The goal of this study was to understand the replication kinetics, tissue tropism, and pathogenesis of human ICV (huICV) in comparison to the swine influenza D virus (swIDV) in guinea pigs. Intranasal inoculation of both viruses did not cause clinical signs, however, the infected animals shed virus in nasal washes. The huICV replicated in the nasal turbinates, soft palate, and trachea but not in the lungs while swIDV replicated in all four tissues. A comparative analysis of tropism and pathogenesis of these two related seven-segmented influenza viruses revealed that swIDV-infected animals exhibited broad tissue tropism with an increased rate of shedding on 3, 5, and 7 dpi and high viral loads in the lungs compared to huICV. Seroconversion occurred late in the huICV group at 14 dpi, while swIDV-infected animals seroconverted at 7 dpi. Guinea pigs infected with huICV exhibited mild to moderate inflammatory changes in the epithelium of the soft palate and trachea, along with mucosal damage and multifocal alveolitis in the lungs. In summary, the replication kinetics and pathobiological characteristics of ICV in guinea pigs agree with the clinical manifestation of ICV infection in humans, and hence guinea pigs could be used to study these distantly related influenza viruses. IMPORTANCE Similar to influenza A and B, ICV infections are seen associated with bacterial and viral co-infections which complicates the assessment of its real clinical significance. Further, the antivirals against influenza A and B viruses are ineffective against ICV which mandates the need to study the pathobiological aspects of this virus. Here we demonstrated that the respiratory tract of guinea pigs possesses specific viral receptors for ICV. We also compared the replication kinetics and pathogenesis of huICV and swIDV, as these viruses share 50% sequence identity. The tissue tropism and pathology associated with huICV in guinea pigs are analogous to the mild respiratory disease caused by ICV in humans, thereby demonstrating the suitability of guinea pigs to study ICV. Our comparative analysis revealed that huICV and swIDV replicated differentially in the guinea pigs suggesting that the type-specific genetic differences can result in the disparity of the viral shedding and tissue tropism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chithra C. Sreenivasan
- Department of Veterinary Science, M. H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Runxia Liu
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Rongyuan Gao
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Yicheng Guo
- Zuckerman Mind Brian Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ben M. Hause
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Milton Thomas
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Ahsan Naveed
- Department of Veterinary Science, M. H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Travis Clement
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Dana Rausch
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Jane Christopher-Hennings
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Eric Nelson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Julian Druce
- Virology Section, Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Miaoyun Zhao
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Radhey S. Kaushik
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota, USA
| | - Qingsheng Li
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Zizhang Sheng
- Zuckerman Mind Brian Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Veterinary Science, M. H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Veterinary Science, M. H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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Nissly RH, Zaman N, Ibrahim PAS, McDaniel K, Lim L, Kiser JN, Bird I, Chothe SK, Bhushan GL, Vandegrift K, Neibergs HL, Kuchipudi SV. Influenza C and D viral load in cattle correlates with bovine respiratory disease (BRD): Emerging role of orthomyxoviruses in the pathogenesis of BRD. Virology 2020; 551:10-15. [PMID: 33010670 PMCID: PMC7519714 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the costliest disease affecting the cattle industry globally. Orthomyxoviruses, influenza C virus (ICV) and influenza D virus (IDV) have recently been implicated to play a role in BRD. However, there are contradicting reports about the association of IDV and ICV to BRD. Using the largest cohort study (cattle, n = 599) to date we investigated the association of influenza viruses in cattle with BRD. Cattle were scored for respiratory symptoms and pooled nasal and pharyngeal swabs were tested for bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine respiratory syncytial virus, bovine coronavirus, ICV and IDV by real-time PCR. Cattle that have higher viral loads of IDV and ICV also have greater numbers of co-infecting viruses than controls. More strikingly, 2 logs higher IDV viral RNA in BRD-symptomatic cattle that are co-infected animals than those infected with IDV alone. Our results strongly suggest that ICV and IDV may be significant contributors to BRD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth H Nissly
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Noriza Zaman
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Puteri Ainaa S Ibrahim
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Kaitlin McDaniel
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Levina Lim
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Jennifer N Kiser
- Department of Animal Sciences and Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Ian Bird
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Shubhada K Chothe
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Gitanjali L Bhushan
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Kurt Vandegrift
- The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Holly L Neibergs
- Department of Animal Sciences and Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Suresh V Kuchipudi
- Penn State Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA; The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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Liao F, Nishimura H, Ito H, Zhang Y, Matsuzaki Y. Longitudinal course of influenza C virus antibody titers of healthy adults in Sendai, Japan. J Clin Virol 2020; 133:104662. [PMID: 33137705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza C virus causes mild respiratory diseases in humans. Previous studies suggested that the predominant hemagglutinin-esterase gene lineage circulating in children might be selected among the adult population, yet the prevalence of influenza C virus in adults has not been described. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the frequency of influenza C virus infection in adults. STUDY DESIGN We performed hemagglutination inhibition assays of serum samples collected at periodic occupational medical checkups from employees of a hospital. A total of 679 serum samples were collected from 57 subjects who participated in biannual medical checkups between 2011 and 2016 as part of a longitudinal series. Titers of antibodies against the C/Kanagawa and C/Sao Paulo lineage viruses were detected. RESULTS Ten serum sample pairs from among the 57 subjects showed at least a four-fold increase in influenza C antibody titers. Samples from three subjects exhibited antibody titer increases for both the C/Kanagawa and C/Sao Paulo lineages, four subjects showed an increased titer against the C/Sao Paulo lineage, and three subjects showed an increased titer against the C/Kanagawa lineage. Half of the antibody titer increases for the C/Kanagawa lineage were detected in May 2014, while the increases for the C/Sao Paulo lineage were detected from 2011 to 2016. CONCLUSION The 5-year influenza C virus infection rate was estimated at 17.5 %. There were antibodies that cross-reacted with the C/Sao Paulo and C/Kanagawa lineages. The results suggest that C/Sao Paulo was the main lineage in the adult population of this area, with cocirculation of the C/Kanagawa lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Liao
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-8520, Japan; Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, 650022, Kunming, PR China
| | - Hidekazu Nishimura
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-8520, Japan
| | - Hiroko Ito
- Virus Research Center, Clinical Research Division, Sendai Medical Center, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 983-8520, Japan
| | - Yunhui Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, 650022, Kunming, PR China
| | - Yoko Matsuzaki
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yamagata University, Faculty of Medicine, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, 990-9585, Japan.
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Njouom R, Monamele GC, Ermetal B, Tchatchouang S, Moyo-Tetang S, McCauley JW, Daniels RS. Detection of Influenza C Virus Infection among Hospitalized Patients, Cameroon. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 25:607-609. [PMID: 30789339 PMCID: PMC6390756 DOI: 10.3201/eid2503.181213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
We report 3 cases of influenza C virus in children hospitalized with severe acute respiratory infection in Cameroon. Two of these case-patients had grave clinical manifestations, but all 3 recovered. The lack of specific antiviral drugs for influenza C virus highlights the need to identify and describe cases involving this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Schuster
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy Kansas City, 2401 Gillham Road, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA.
| | - John V Williams
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 9122 Rangos Research Building, 4401 Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
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Howard LM, Johnson M, Gil AI, Pekosz A, Griffin MR, Edwards KM, Lanata CF, Grijalva CG, Williams JV. A novel real-time RT-PCR assay for influenza C tested in Peruvian children. J Clin Virol 2017; 96:12-16. [PMID: 28917132 PMCID: PMC5901714 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2017.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza C virus (ICV) is associated with acute respiratory illness. Yet ICV remains under recognized, with most previous studies using only culture to identify cases. OBJECTIVES To develop a sensitive and specific real-time RT-PCR assay for ICV that allows for rapid and accurate detection in a clinical or research setting. STUDY DESIGN Multiple ICV sequences obtained from GenBank were analyzed, including 141 hemagglutinin-esterase (HE), 106 matrix (M), and 97 nucleoprotein (NP) sequences. Primers and probes were designed based on conserved regions. Multiple primer-probe sets were tested against multiple ICV strains. RESULTS The ICV M and NP genes offered the most conserved sequence regions. Primers and probes based on newer sequence data offered enhanced detection of ICV, especially for low titer specimens. An NP-targeted assay yielded the best performance and was capable of detecting 10-100 RNA copies per reaction. The NP assay detected multiple clinical isolates of ICV collected in a field epidemiology study conducted in Peru. CONCLUSIONS We report a new real-time RT-PCR assay for ICV with high sensitivity and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh M Howard
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Monika Johnson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, United States
| | - Ana I Gil
- Instituto de Investigacion Nutricional, Lima, Peru
| | - Andrew Pekosz
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, United States
| | - Marie R Griffin
- Department of Health Policy, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Kathryn M Edwards
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States; Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Claudio F Lanata
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States; Instituto de Investigacion Nutricional, Lima, Peru
| | - Carlos G Grijalva
- Department of Health Policy, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - John V Williams
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, United States.
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7
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Nesmith N, Williams JV, Johnson M, Zhu Y, Griffin M, Talbot HK. Sensitive Diagnostics Confirm That Influenza C is an Uncommon Cause of Medically Attended Respiratory Illness in Adults. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65:1037-1039. [PMID: 28541414 PMCID: PMC5850529 DOI: 10.1093/cid/cix471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Among 4200 adults who presented with acute respiratory symptoms at a variety of medical practice settings (November 2006 through May 2012), only 13 (0.3%) nasal/throat swabs were positive for influenza C. Influenza C was rarely associated with medical care visits in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John V Williams
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pennsylvania; and
| | - Monika Johnson
- University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pennsylvania; and
| | - Yuwei Zhu
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Marie Griffin
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
- Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Health Care System, Nashville
| | - H Keipp Talbot
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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Salez N, Mélade J, Pascalis H, Aherfi S, Dellagi K, Charrel RN, Carrat F, de Lamballerie X. Influenza C virus high seroprevalence rates observed in 3 different population groups. J Infect 2014; 69:182-9. [PMID: 24704348 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2014.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The epidemiology of Influenza C virus (FLUCV) infections remains poorly characterised. Here, we have examined the age- and location-specific seroprevalence of antibodies against FLUCV in 1441 sera from metropolitan continental France (Marseille), South-West Indian Ocean French territories (Reunion Island) and United-Kingdom (Edinburgh) using a combination of haemagglutination inhibition, virus neutralisation and ELISA assays. Our results show that immunity to FLUCV is common in all locations studied (global seroprevalence values >50%) and that the first immunising contacts generally occur early in life (i.e., in the 0-4 year-old age group). The latter item is further supported by the detection of FLUCV RNA by RT-PCR in naso-pharyngeal samples collected in patient attending the Emergency Room of the Public hospitals of Marseille, France with a large majority of children under 10 years-old: 17 (60.7%) in children ≤3 yo, 10 (35.7%) in the 4-10 yo age group and 1 (3.6%) in an adult (49yo). The temporal distribution of cases was atypical with regard to influenza (a large proportion of cases occurred in spring and summer) and the clinical presentation was diverse, including but being not limited to classical Influenza-like-Ilnesses. Altogether, our results indicate an intense circulation of FLUCV in the different study areas and an early occurrence of infection in human life. Flu C appears to be a widely under-diagnosed and under-studied human paediatric disease that obviously deserves further clinical and epidemiological characterisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Salez
- UMR_D 190, Emergence des Pathologies Virales, Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD French Institute of Research for Development, EHESP French School of Public Health, Marseille, France.
| | - Julien Mélade
- UMR_D 190, Emergence des Pathologies Virales, Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD French Institute of Research for Development, EHESP French School of Public Health, Marseille, France
| | - Hervé Pascalis
- Centre de Recherche et de Veille sur les maladies émergentes dans l'Océan Indien, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France
| | - Sarah Aherfi
- IHU Mediterranee Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Koussay Dellagi
- Centre de Recherche et de Veille sur les maladies émergentes dans l'Océan Indien, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France
| | - Rémi N Charrel
- UMR_D 190, Emergence des Pathologies Virales, Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD French Institute of Research for Development, EHESP French School of Public Health, Marseille, France; IHU Mediterranee Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Fabrice Carrat
- Epidémiologie des Maladies Infectieuses et Modélisation (UMR-S 707), INSERM-Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Xavier de Lamballerie
- UMR_D 190, Emergence des Pathologies Virales, Aix-Marseille Univ., IRD French Institute of Research for Development, EHESP French School of Public Health, Marseille, France; IHU Mediterranee Infection, APHM Public Hospitals of Marseille, Marseille, France
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Pabbaraju K, Wong S, Wong A, May‐Hadford J, Tellier R, Fonseca K. Detection of influenza C virus by a real-time RT-PCR assay. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013; 7:954-60. [PMID: 23445084 PMCID: PMC4634283 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza C virus can cause both upper and lower respiratory tract infections and has been reported to be prevalent in children. However, these infections have been under-diagnosed, and epidemiological data available are limited due to the lack of convenient detection assays. OBJECTIVE Design and validate a real-time reverse-transcriptase PCR (rt RT-PCR) assay for the detection of influenza C. STUDY DESIGN Respiratory samples from two primary settings, namely, children who were hospitalized or seen in the emergency department, and respiratory outbreaks for which no other viral etiology was found were used for the detection of influenza C. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The assay was sensitive and specific for the detection of influenza C. Eleven of 474 (2·32%) patients, all less than 10 years of age, were positive for influenza C. The strains clustered into two lineages, namely C/Kanagawa and C/Sao Paulo, based upon sequencing of the hemagglutinin-esterase gene. Epidemiological data showed that a higher proportion of influenza C infections occur in younger children and during the winter months. This is the first report of the detection of influenza C in Alberta, Canada, and suggests that the detection of this virus should be included in respiratory virus testing panels.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sallene Wong
- Provincial Laboratory for Public HealthCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Anita Wong
- Provincial Laboratory for Public HealthCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | | | - Raymond Tellier
- Provincial Laboratory for Public HealthCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious DiseasesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Kevin Fonseca
- Provincial Laboratory for Public HealthCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious DiseasesUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
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