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Yan X, Zhao Z, Weaver J, Sun T, Yun JW, Roneker CA, Hu F, Doliba NM, McCormick CCW, Vatamaniuk MZ, Lei XG. Role and mechanism of REG2 depletion in insulin secretion augmented by glutathione peroxidase-1 overproduction. Redox Biol 2022; 56:102457. [PMID: 36063729 PMCID: PMC9463454 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2022.102457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported a depletion of murine regenerating islet-derived protein 2 (REG2) in pancreatic islets of glutathione peroxidase-1 (Gpx1) overexpressing (OE) mice. The present study was to explore if and how the REG2 depletion contributed to an augmented glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in OE islets. After we verified a consistent depletion (90%, p < 0.05) of REG2 mRNA, transcript, and protein in OE islets compared with wild-type (WT) controls, we treated cultured and perifused OE islets (70 islets/sample) with REG2 (1 μg/ml or ml · min) and observed 30-40% (p < 0.05) inhibitions of GSIS by REG2. Subsequently, we obtained evidences of co-immunoprecipitation, cell surface ligand binding, and co-immunofluorescence for a ligand-receptor binding between REG2 and transmembrane, L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2) in beta TC3 cells. Mutating the C-type lectin binding domain of REG2 or deglycosylating CaV1.2 removed the inhibition of REG2 on GSIS and(or) the putative binding between the two proteins. Treating cultured OE and perifused WT islets with REG2 (1 μg/ml or ml · min) decreased (p < 0.05) Ca2+ influx triggered by glucose or KCl. An intraperitoneal (ip) injection of REG2 (2 μg/g) to OE mice (6-month old, n = 10) decreased their plasma insulin concentration (46%, p < 0.05) and elevated their plasma glucose concentration (25%, p < 0.05) over a 60 min period after glucose challenge (ip, 1 g/kg). In conclusion, our study identifies REG2 as a novel regulator of Ca2+ influx and insulin secretion, and reveals a new cascade of GPX1/REG2/CaV1.2 to explain how REG2 depletion in OE islets could decrease its binding to CaV1.2, resulting in uninhibited Ca2+ influx and augmented GSIS. These findings create new links to bridge redox biology, tissue regeneration, and insulin secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Yan
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Zeping Zhao
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jeremy Weaver
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Tao Sun
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jun-Won Yun
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA; Laboratory of Veterinary Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Carol A Roneker
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Nicolai M Doliba
- Institute of Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | | | - Marko Z Vatamaniuk
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Xin Gen Lei
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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Feng X, Li X, Yang C, Ren Q, Zhang W, Li N, Zhang M, Zhang B, Zhang L, Zhou X, Xu Z. Maternal High-Sucrose Diet Accelerates Vascular Stiffness in Aged Offspring via Suppressing Ca v 1.2 and Contractile Phenotype of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells. Mol Nutr Food Res 2019; 63:e1900022. [PMID: 31067604 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201900022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE The fetal programming in response to over-nutrition during pregnancy is involved in pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases later in life. The authors' previous work reported that prenatal high-sucrose (HS) diet impaired functions of large-conductance Ca2+ -activated K+ channels (BK) in mesenteric arteries in the adolescent offspring rats. This study determines whether prenatal HS has a long-term impact on resistance vasculature in the aged offspring rats. METHODS AND RESULTS Pregnant rats are fed with a high-sucrose diet until delivery. Aged offspring from prenatal HS exhibit elevated fasting insulin level, insulin resistance index, and diastolic pressure. Both pressure-induced myogenic responses and phenylephrine-stimulated contraction of mesenteric arteries in HS are weakened. Electrophysiological tests and western blot indicate that BK and L-type calcium channels (Cav 1.2) are impaired in HS group. On the other hand, expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2 of mesenteric arteries is reduced in HS group while expression of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase is increased, indicating that extra cellular matrix (ECM) is remodeled. Furthermore, expression of α-smooth muscle actin is decreased, and insulin/insulin receptor/phosphoinositide3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway is downregulated. CONCLUSION The results suggest that prenatal HS induced stiffness of mesenteric arteries in aged offspring by inhibiting Cav 1.2 function and PI3K-associated contractile phenotype of VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueqin Feng
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Chunli Yang
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Qinggui Ren
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tengzhou Central People's Hospital, Zaozhuang, 277500, China
| | - Wenna Zhang
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Na Li
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tengzhou Central People's Hospital, Zaozhuang, 277500, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Tengzhou Central People's Hospital, Zaozhuang, 277500, China
| | - Lubo Zhang
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China.,Center for Prenatal Biology, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, 92350, USA
| | - Xiuwen Zhou
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Zhice Xu
- Institute for Fetology, First Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
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Cai Y, Lei Y, Chen J, Cao L, Yang X, Zhang K, Cao Y. Erythromycin relaxes BALB/c mouse airway smooth muscle. Life Sci 2019; 221:135-142. [PMID: 30731142 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Bitter taste receptor (TAS2R) agonists have bronchodilatory potentials. Erythromycin is a ligand of TAS2R10, but its relaxant profile is unknown. This study was performed to understand the relaxant effects of erythromycin and its potential mechanism. MAIN METHODS Airway resistance was tested by the whole body plethysmography in the ovalbumin-aluminum hydroxide induced asthma model mice. Tracheal ring segment myography was used to investigate the isometric tension of the smooth muscle. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) concentration was measured by enzyme immunoassay kit. Changes in the calcium influx in airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) were surveyed using a real-time confocal microscopy. KEY FINDINGS Erythromycin significantly relieved airway hyperreactivity in asthma model mice. Erythromycin relaxed mouse tracheal segments precontracted with carbachol, KCl, 5-hydroxytryptamine and U46619, and further dilated the tracheal rings relaxed by isoprenaline or atropine. Epithelium removal, indomethacin or NS-398 partially reduced the relaxation. U73122, 2-APB, iberiotoxin or ouabain did not change the concentration-relaxation curves of erythromycin on tracheal segments. Erythromycin didn't elevate cAMP level. CaCl2-induced contraction in the K+-rich solution was impaired by erythromycin in the Ca2+-free solution. The intercellular Ca2+ level in the ASMCs was decreased by erythromycin, which was partly inhibited by Bay K8644 but not gallein. SIGNIFICANCE Erythromycin had marked bronchodilatory effect. The relaxation might be related to the L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel, but not the gustducin-associated βγ/phospholipase-Cβ/inositol 1,4,5-tri-phosphate receptor/large conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel pathway or a cAMP-dependent way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Cai
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China; Department of Pharmacy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Ying Lei
- Department of Pharmacy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Jingguo Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Lei Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China.
| | - Xudong Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Kanghuai Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Yongxiao Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, China.
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Yu H, Li M, Shen X, Lv D, Sun X, Wang J, Gu X, Hu J, Wang C. The Requirement of L-Type Voltage-Dependent Calcium Channel (L-VDCC) in the Rapid-Acting Antidepressant-Like Effects of Scopolamine in Mice. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2017; 21:175-186. [PMID: 29020410 PMCID: PMC5793820 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyx080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have shown that a low dose of scopolamine produces rapid-acting antidepressant-like actions in rodents. Understanding the mechanisms underlying this effect and the dose-dependent variations of drug responses remains an important task. L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels were found to mediate rapid-acting antidepressant effects of certain medications (e.g., ketamine). Therefore, it is of great interest to determine the involvement of L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels in the action of scopolamine. METHODS Herein, we investigated the mechanisms underlying behavioral responses to various doses of scopolamine in mice to clarify the involvement of L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels in its modes of action. Open field test, novel object recognition test, and forced swimming test were performed on mice administered varied doses of scopolamine (0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 1, and 3 mg/kg, i.p.) alone or combined with L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel blocker verapamil (5 mg/kg, i.p.). Then, the changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide VGF (nonacronymic) levels in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of these mice were analyzed. RESULTS Low doses of scopolamine (0.025 and 0.05 mg/kg) produced significant antidepressant-like effects in the forced swimming test, while higher doses (1 and 3 mg/kg) resulted in significant memory deficits and depressive-like behaviors. Moreover, the behavioral changes in responses to various doses may be related to the upregulation (0.025 and 0.05 mg/kg) and downregulation (1 and 3 mg/kg) of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and VGF in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in mice. We further found that the rapid-acting antidepressant-like effects and the upregulation on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and VGF produced by a low dose of scopolamine (0.025 mg/kg) were completely blocked by verapamil. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels are likely involved in the behavioral changes in response to various doses of scopolamine through the regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and VGF levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanjie Yu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Mengmeng Li
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xinbei Shen
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Dan Lv
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xin Sun
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jinting Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xinmei Gu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jingning Hu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Chuang Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang, P.R. China,Li Dak Sum Yip Yio Chin Kenneth Li Marine Biopharmaceutical Research Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China,Correspondence: Chuang Wang, MD, PhD, Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, PR China ( or )
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Kumar D, Dedic N, Flachskamm C, Voulé S, Deussing JM, Kimura M. Cacna1c (Cav1.2) Modulates Electroencephalographic Rhythm and Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Recovery. Sleep 2015; 38:1371-80. [PMID: 25845695 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.4972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES The CACNA1C gene encodes the alpha 1C (α1C) subunit of the Cav1.2 voltage-dependent L-type calcium channel (LTCC). Some of the other voltage-dependent calcium channels, e.g., P-/Q-type, Cav2.1; N-type, Cav2.2; E-/R-type, Cav2.3; and T-type, Cav3.3 have been implicated in sleep modulation. However, the contribution of LTCCs to sleep remains largely unknown. Based on recent genome-wide association studies, CACNA1C emerged as one of potential candidate genes associated with both sleep and psychiatric disorders. Indeed, most patients with mental illnesses have sleep problems and vice versa. DESIGN To investigate an impact of Cav1.2 on sleep-wake behavior and electroencephalogram (EEG) activity, polysomnography was performed in heterozygous Cacna1c (HET) knockout mice and their wild-type (WT) littermates under baseline and challenging conditions (acute sleep deprivation and restraint stress). MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS HET mice displayed significantly lower EEG spectral power than WT mice across high frequency ranges (beta to gamma) during wake and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Although HET mice spent slightly more time asleep in the dark period, daily amounts of sleep did not differ between the two genotypes. However, recovery sleep after exposure to both types of challenging stress conditions differed markedly; HET mice exhibited reduced REM sleep recovery responses compared to WT mice. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest the involvement of Cacna1c (Cav1.2) in fast electroencephalogram oscillations and REM sleep regulatory processes. Lower spectral gamma activity, slightly increased sleep demands, and altered REM sleep responses found in heterozygous Cacna1c knockout mice may rather resemble a sleep phenotype observed in schizophrenia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nina Dedic
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
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Hopp SC, D'Angelo HM, Royer SE, Kaercher RM, Adzovic L, Wenk GL. Differential rescue of spatial memory deficits in aged rats by L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel and ryanodine receptor antagonism. Neuroscience 2014; 280:10-8. [PMID: 25224829 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Age-associated memory impairments may result as a consequence of neuroinflammatory induction of intracellular calcium (Ca(+2)) dysregulation. Altered L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel (L-VDCC) and ryanodine receptor (RyR) activity may underlie age-associated learning and memory impairments. Various neuroinflammatory markers are associated with increased activity of both L-VDCCs and RyRs, and increased neuroinflammation is associated with normal aging. In vitro, pharmacological blockade of L-VDCCs and RyRs has been shown to be anti-inflammatory. Here, we examined whether pharmacological blockade of L-VDCCs or RyRs with the drugs nimodipine and dantrolene, respectively, could improve spatial memory and reduce age-associated increases in microglia activation. Dantrolene and nimodipine differentially attenuated age-associated spatial memory deficits but were not anti-inflammatory in vivo. Furthermore, RyR gene expression was inversely correlated with spatial memory, highlighting the central role of Ca(+2) dysregulation in age-associated memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Hopp
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - H M D'Angelo
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - S E Royer
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - R M Kaercher
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - L Adzovic
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - G L Wenk
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Abstract
During central nervous system development, extracellular matrix (ECM) receptors and their ligands play key roles as guidance molecules, informing neurons where and when to send axonal and dendritic projections, establish connections, and form synapses between pre- and postsynaptic cells. Once stable synapses are formed, many ECM receptors transition in function to control the maintenance of stable connections between neurons and regulate synaptic plasticity. These receptors bind to and are activated by ECM ligands. In turn, ECM receptor activation modulates downstream signaling cascades that control cytoskeletal dynamics and synaptic activity to regulate neuronal structure and function and thereby impact animal behavior. The activities of cell adhesion receptors that mediate interactions between pre- and postsynaptic partners are also strongly influenced by ECM composition. This chapter highlights a number of ECM receptors, their roles in the control of synapse structure and function, and the impact of these receptors on synaptic plasticity and animal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan E Kerrisk
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lorenzo A Cingolani
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Anthony J Koleske
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Neurobiology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration, and Repair, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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