1
|
Schütz M, Braswell H. Ethicizing history. Bioethical representations of Nazi medicine. Bioethics 2023; 37:581-590. [PMID: 37119534 DOI: 10.1111/bioe.13168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The article presents and analyzes different approaches of U.S. bioethicists in comprehending the Nazi medical crimes after 1945. The account is divided into two sections: one dealing with discussions on research ethics and the Nuremberg Code up until the 1970s and the other ranging from the 1970s to the present and highlighting bioethics' engagement with Nazi analogies. The portrayal of different bioethical scholars, institutions, and documents-most notably Henry K. Beecher, Jay Katz, the Belmont Report, the Hastings Center, Arthur L. Caplan, and Robert M. Veatch-provides a nuanced interpretation of the motives that bioethicists held and the strategies that they applied to establish an understanding of the Nazi medical crimes and their relation to contemporary bioethical issues. In this, the different approaches shared a common goal: To integrate the Nazi medical crimes into an ethical framework by means of selective acknowledgments and representation of their history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Schütz
- Institute of Ethics, History and Theory of Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, München, Germany
| | - Harold Braswell
- Albert Gnaegi Center for Health Care Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Miller FG, Moreno JD. Human Infection Challenge Experiments: Then and Now. Ethics Hum Res 2021; 43:42-44. [PMID: 33723914 PMCID: PMC8250507 DOI: 10.1002/eahr.500088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic, ethicists, researchers, and journalists have recommended studies that deliberately infect healthy volunteers with the coronavirus as a scientific means of expediting vaccine development. In this essay, we trace the history of infection challenge experiments and reflect on the Nuremberg Code of 1947, issued in response to brutal human experiments conducted by Nazi investigators in concentration camps. We argue that the Code continues to offer valuable guidance for assessing the ethics of this controversial form of research, with respect particularly to the acceptable limits to research risks and the social value of research necessary to justify exposing human participants to these risks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franklin G Miller
- Professor of medical ethics in medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College
| | - Jonathan D Moreno
- David and Lyn Silfen University Professor at the University of Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Weisleder P. The American Neurological Association's Book "Eugenical Sterilization: A Reorientation of the Problem" Through the Lens of Contemporaneous Book Reviews. Pediatr Neurol 2020; 111:73-7. [PMID: 32951666 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2020.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 1936, the American Neurological Association (ANA) published the book "Eugenical Sterilization: A Reorientation of the Problem" in response to what the first author of the book described as a positive reception to a paper presented at the ANA's 1935 annual meeting. The conclusions of the presentation were approved by the organization during the same meeting. As evidenced by the publication of several book reviews in a variety of medical journals, the book garnered some attention. METHODS Reviews of the ANA's book were sought using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Embasa. Also, the book's title was used to search the World Wide Web. RESULTS The search yielded four reviews, all published in 1937. The reviews make evident a positive opinion of the ANA's book's authors' recommendations including the option for "selective sterilization" of patients with conditions such as Huntington disease, Friedreich ataxia, and epilepsy. In addition, reviewers highlighted the book's authors' assessment that "the feebleminded [breed] docile, servile, useful people who do the dirty work of the race, [as] servants fulfilling a social function." CONCLUSIONS Although the book's authors did not advocate for all-out eugenical sterilization, they did little to counter the popular opinion that patients with certain neurological diseases were a drain on society. In addition, they espoused a positive vision of the feebleminded's role as servants who can do undesirable work. This message was disseminated through book reviews.
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
In 2010, in an article in this journal, I argued that declassified documents implicated Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) physicians in the conduct of unethical research on enhanced interrogation using detainee subjects. The focus, then as now, is upon physicians at the Office of Medical Services (OMS). The 2010 article highlighted the heavily redacted "Draft OMS Guidelines on Medical and Psychological Support to Detainee Interrogations" (the Draft). This commentary focuses upon the recently declassified final version of that document revealing further culpable evidence of unethical human subject research. The commentary locates that unethical research in historical context and the development of the Nuremberg Code. The commentary also locates enhanced interrogation in contemporary political context and considers how to hold OMS physicians accountable for the conduct of unethical human research using detainee subjects.
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
In our time of genome-based personalized medicine, clinical research and clinical medicine are accelerating at a quick pace. Faster and cheaper DNA sequencing and protein profiling, microfluidic devices for capturing blood biomarkers, nanoparticles for precise drug delivery and enhanced imaging, rapid computational analysis of massive data inputs, and other technological wonders coalesce to create a kind of Moore's Law for medicine. Needs are obvious, knowledge grows, capital becomes available, but these factors are not entirely sufficient to make health more achievable. Personalized medicine also requires social acceptability, not only for accuracy and efficacy but also because medicine is a moral domain. This chapter deals with medical ethics that determine the choices a society makes regarding healthcare; and it has not always been a steady, morally correct course of progress. Indeed, medical ethics has largely derived from socio-scientific calamities in the past. Personalized medicine, with its enhanced capacity to access the individuality of illness, must have a continuously evolving feedback mechanism-the most important element being the physician-patient relationship-which is its ethical footing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Terry Sharrer
- Retired Surator of Health Sciences - Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hariharan S, Jonnalagadda R, Walrond E, Moseley H. Knowledge, attitudes and practice of healthcare ethics and law among doctors and nurses in Barbados. BMC Med Ethics 2006; 7:E7. [PMID: 16764719 PMCID: PMC1524795 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6939-7-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2006] [Accepted: 06/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the study is to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices among healthcare professionals in Barbados in relation to healthcare ethics and law in an attempt to assist in guiding their professional conduct and aid in curriculum development. Methods A self-administered structured questionnaire about knowledge of healthcare ethics, law and the role of an Ethics Committee in the healthcare system was devised, tested and distributed to all levels of staff at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Barbados (a tertiary care teaching hospital) during April and May 2003. Results The paper analyses 159 responses from doctors and nurses comprising junior doctors, consultants, staff nurses and sisters-in-charge. The frequency with which the respondents encountered ethical or legal problems varied widely from 'daily' to 'yearly'. 52% of senior medical staff and 20% of senior nursing staff knew little of the law pertinent to their work. 11% of the doctors did not know the contents of the Hippocratic Oath whilst a quarter of nurses did not know the Nurses Code. Nuremberg Code and Helsinki Code were known only to a few individuals. 29% of doctors and 37% of nurses had no knowledge of an existing hospital ethics committee. Physicians had a stronger opinion than nurses regarding practice of ethics such as adherence to patients' wishes, confidentiality, paternalism, consent for procedures and treating violent/non-compliant patients (p = 0.01) Conclusion The study highlights the need to identify professionals in the workforce who appear to be indifferent to ethical and legal issues, to devise means to sensitize them to these issues and appropriately training them.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Barbados
- Codes of Ethics
- Ethics Committees, Clinical
- Ethics, Clinical
- Ethics, Medical
- Ethics, Nursing
- Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice
- Helsinki Declaration
- Hippocratic Oath
- Humans
- Jurisprudence
- Medical Staff, Hospital/ethics
- Medical Staff, Hospital/psychology
- Medical Staff, Hospital/statistics & numerical data
- Nursing Staff, Hospital/ethics
- Nursing Staff, Hospital/psychology
- Nursing Staff, Hospital/statistics & numerical data
- Patient Rights
- Referral and Consultation
- Surveys and Questionnaires
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seetharaman Hariharan
- School of Clinical Medicine & Research, The University of the West Indies, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados, West Indies
| | - Ramesh Jonnalagadda
- School of Clinical Medicine & Research, The University of the West Indies, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados, West Indies
| | - Errol Walrond
- School of Clinical Medicine & Research, The University of the West Indies, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados, West Indies
| | - Harley Moseley
- School of Clinical Medicine & Research, The University of the West Indies, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados, West Indies
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Farrell K. Human experimentation in developing countries: improving international practices by identifying vulnerable populations and allocating fair benefits. J Health Care Law Policy 2006; 9:136-61. [PMID: 17165228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
|
8
|
Goldstein N. Financial conflicts of interest in biomedical human subject research. J Biolaw Bus 2006; 9:26-37. [PMID: 17111525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to examine the past, present and future of financial conflict of interest regulation in biomedical human subject testing. Part I will briefly review the forces giving rise to the current controversy. Part II will examine the more influential ethical codes on human subject testing and argue that they are inconclusive on the subject of financial conflicts of interest. Part III will examine the various regulations now in place and identify their serious flaws. Part IV will critique the leading proposals for reform. The Conclusion will synthesize the best features of the various proposals for reform and suggest improvements left unaddressed by these proposals.
Collapse
|
9
|
Gillon JJ. More subject and less human: the pain-filled journey of human subjects protection ... and some differences in the United States and the European Union. Med Law Int 2005; 7:65-89. [PMID: 16622987 DOI: 10.1177/096853320500700103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John J Gillon
- Office of Petitions, United States Patent and Trademark Office (U.S. Department of Commerce), USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
|
11
|
Gandhi R. Research involving children: regulations, review boards and reform. J Health Care Law Policy 2005; 8:264-330. [PMID: 16471026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
|
12
|
|
13
|
Javitt GH. Old legacies and new paradigms: confusing "research" and "treatment" and its consequences in responding to emergent health threats. J Health Care Law Policy 2005; 8:38-70. [PMID: 16538801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
|
14
|
Herranz G. The ethics of medical research: a Christian view. Bull Med Ethics 2004:13-9. [PMID: 15832480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
|
15
|
Levine RJ. Ethical principles for the conduct of research involving human subjects: historical considerations. J Clin Ethics 2004; 15:13-21. [PMID: 15202352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
|
16
|
Temme LA. Ethics in human experimentation: the two military physicians who helped develop the Nuremberg Code. Aviat Space Environ Med 2003; 74:1297-300. [PMID: 14692476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Abstract
The Nuremberg Code is generally considered the beginning of modern ethics in human experimentation. The Code is a list of 10 principles that Judge Walter Beals included in the judgment he delivered at the close of the Nuremberg Medical Trial on 19 August 1947. Recently, scholars have studied the origin of the Code, who wrote it, and why. This is important to military medicine and the Aerospace Medical Association in particular because many of the defendants claimed their crimes were experiments in aviation and environmental physiology conducted under wartime conditions. The chief prosecutor of the Nuremberg Medical Trial, General Telford Taylor, relied on the guidance of an advisor provided by the American Medical Association, Andrew C. Ivy, one of the foremost physiologists of his time. The neurologist, Leo Alexander, then a colonel in the U.S. Army Reserves, was another medical advisor. Both men were crucial to the development of Taylor's courtroom strategy. The material Alexander and Ivy provided was incorporated verbatim in the section of the judgment that became the Code. Although both men contributed to the Code, Ivy provided what seems to be the first formulation of many of these principles during a meeting of Allied medical investigators at the Pasteur Institute in July 1946. Naval researchers should note that Ivy had been the Director of the Research Division of the Naval Medical Research Institute when it was commissioned on October 27, 1942.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leonard A Temme
- Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Pensacola, FL 32508-1046, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Nicholson R. Divergent standards for consent in research. Bull Med Ethics 2003:13-21. [PMID: 15832471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
|
18
|
Mossman KL. Medical testing: issues and ethics. Forum Appl Res Public Policy 2003; 12:90-101. [PMID: 12962094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K L Mossman
- Department of Microbiology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Graber GC. An ethicist's perspective on human radiation tests. Forum Appl Res Public Policy 2003; 12:115-21. [PMID: 12962098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
|
20
|
Abstract
Experimentation involving children is not a new phenomenon. Children have been used as research subjects in a diverse set of experiments, including the trials of new vaccines and sera, in efforts to understand normal pediatric anatomy and physiology and in the development of new drugs and procedures. Concern about child participants in research is also not a new development. For more than a century, critics of medical research have called attention to the fact that children and other vulnerable populations--pregnant women, prisoners, the mentally ill--have too often served as the unwitting and unwilling subjects of medical experiments. This paper looks at several early cases in which children participated, including the first trial of cowpox vaccine, the first human trial of rabies vaccine, and the first treatment of Listerian wound antisepsis. The history of concern for children, especially institutionalized children, in medical research is considered along with the development of regulations or guidelines, including the Declaration of Helsinki (1964).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Lederer
- Yale University, School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Todres J. Can research subjects of clinical trials in developing countries sue physician-investigators for human rights violations? N Y Law Sch J Hum Rights 2003; 16:737-68. [PMID: 12645593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
|
22
|
|
23
|
Erwin CG. Embryonic stem cell research: one small step for science or one giant leap back for mankind? Univ Ill Law Rev 2003; 2003:211-243. [PMID: 15568234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
At the forefront of modern debate over the ethical use of biotechnology is embryonic stem cell research. In this poignant analysis of its legitimacy, the author examines the history of this research in light of the United States' policy favoring the protection of human beings over scientific progress. Stem cells, which can divide in culture to create specialized cells in the human body, possess significant potential for curing disease, particularly when taken from human embryos. However, as evidenced by the research atrocities committed under the Nazi regime, the benefits of human research do not come without a cost to humanity. Recognizing this, the later trial of these scientists produced the Nuremberg Code, a set of natural law principles guiding future research on humans that continues to influence health policy decisions. Drawing on this background, the author first considers the appropriate legal status for a human embryo. Biologically, the characteristics of a human embryo place it between human tissue and a constitutional person. Judicially, the answer is even less clear. The author analyzes case law in the context of abortion and in vitro fertilization, as well as classifications by the common law, state legislation, and the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, to conclude that a human embryo should be subject to the same legal and ethical restrictions as any other "human subject." Accordingly, the author argues that embryonic stem cell research violates the ethical standards and purposes of the Nuremberg Code and should be banned by federal legislation. Such a prohibition will fulfill the societal policy choice of protecting potential life and vulnerable human subjects.
Collapse
|
24
|
Carr DM. Pfizer's epidemic: a need for international regulation of human experimentation in developing countries. Case West Reserve J Int Law 2003; 35:15-53. [PMID: 16506336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
|
25
|
Benbow S. Conflict + interest: financial incentives and informed consent in human subject research. Notre Dame J Law Ethics Public Policy 2003; 17:181-215. [PMID: 14986653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
|
26
|
Abstract
The primary aim of this article is to examine, within the context of recent controversial child health practice and research, the underlying philosophy of the aspect of the Nursing and Midwifery Council's Code of Professional Conduct which states that: 'You are personally accountable for ensuring that you promote and protect the interests and dignity of patients and clients, irrespective of gender, age, race, ability, sexuality, economic status, lifestyle, culture and religious or political belief.' A description of the Nuremberg Code, the Helsinki Declaration, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Human Rights Act 1998 will form the backdrop to this article and a range of contemporary examples will be used to illuminate the ethical dilemmas facing children's nurses in their day-to-day work. Within this context the four major principles that underpin healthcare this will be investigated and the legacy of historical unethical practice and research acknowledged. The vulnerability of children and their families to potential coercion, and the role of local research ethics committees, will be discussed.
Collapse
|
27
|
Kious BM. The Nuremberg Code: its history and implications. Princet J Bioeth 2002; 4:7-19. [PMID: 12166467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
The Nuremberg Code is a foundational document in the ethics of medical research and human experimentation; the principle its authors espoused in 1946 have provided the framework for modern codes that address the same issues, and have received little challenge and only slight modification in decades since. By analyzing the Code's tragic genesis and its normative implications, it is possible to understand some of the essence of modern experimental ethics, as well as certain outstanding controversies that still plague medical science.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B M Kious
- California Institute of Technology, USA
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Abstract
From the time of Hippocrates, physicians have sworn to "abstain from all intentional wrongdoing and harm," (Lifton, 1986). They are guided by ethical principles and theories that are intended to help them in their practice of medicine and scientific research. The purpose of this paper was to define research and human subjects, to review cases of abuse, address benefits and risks of human experimentation, discuss regulations governing experiments on humans, and address ethical principles and theories regarding this type of research. Human experimentation is an important activity of great societal benefit that must be conducted in a manner consistent with basic societal beliefs and values about the rights and worth of an individual (Gray, 1975). Ethical issues in human experimentation defy definite solutions, and the problems involved in human experimentation will almost certainly continue to receive active attention in future years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N G Owens
- Somerset Community College, Somerset, KY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Roman J. U.S. medical research in the developing world: ignoring Nuremberg. Cornell J Law Public Policy 2002; 11:441-60. [PMID: 12058774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
|
30
|
|
31
|
Gray CR. The "greater good"...at what cost?: how nontherapeutic scientific studies can now create viable negligence claims in Maryland after Grimes v. Kennedy Krieger Institute, Inc. Univ Baltimore Law Rev 2002; 32:73-95. [PMID: 15233132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
|
32
|
O'Connor MJ. Bearing true faith and allegiance? Allowing recovery for soldiers under fire in military experiments that violate the Nuremberg Code. Suffolk Transnatl Law R 2002; 25:649-86. [PMID: 16514768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
|
33
|
Rutecki GW, Youtsey M, Adelson B. The institutional review board: a critical revisit to the protection of human subjects. Ethics Med 2002; 18:135-44. [PMID: 14700023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
|
34
|
Pilotto F, Badon P. Informed consent: between ethics and law. Dolentium Hominum 2002; 17:29-34. [PMID: 16459395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Franco Pilotto
- Faculty of Bioethics, University 'Regina Apostolorum', Rome, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Nuremberg Trials. The Nuremberg Code. Law Med Health Care 1991; 19:266. [PMID: 11642955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
|
36
|
Annas GJ. Experimentation and research. J Calif Alliance Ment Ill 2001; 5:9-11. [PMID: 11653330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
37
|
Isaacman SH. Neonatal HIV testing: governmental inspection of the baby factory. John Marshall Law Rev 2001; 24:571-624. [PMID: 11659664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
38
|
Simmonds R. The law and human experimentation. Univ Ghana Law J 2001; 10:81-102. [PMID: 11663022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
39
|
|
40
|
Mathieu B. From the Nuremberg Code to bioethics: follow-ups to a founder text. Int Dig Health Legis 2001; 49:549-54. [PMID: 11657544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
41
|
|
42
|
Bloom MJ. Non-therapeutic medical research involving human subjects. Syracuse Law Rev 2001; 24:1067-1099. [PMID: 11664224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
43
|
Ioirysh AI. Law and the new potentials of biology. Sov Law Gov 2001; 16:40-54. [PMID: 11662386 DOI: 10.2753/rup1061-1940160140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
44
|
Annas GJ. Mengele's birthmark: the Nuremberg Code in United States courts. J Contemp Health Law Policy 2001; 7:17-45. [PMID: 11645690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
45
|
Annas GJ, Grodin MA. Reflections on the fiftieth anniversary of the Doctors' Trial. Health Hum Rights 2001; 2:7-21. [PMID: 11657276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
|
46
|
Ryan AJ. True protection for persons with severe mental disabilities, such as schizophrenia, involved as subjects in research? A look and consideration of the "Protection of Human Subjects. J Law Health 2001; 9:349-376. [PMID: 11657417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
|
47
|
Annotated bibliography appendices: international codes of ethics. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 1990; 24:582-629. [PMID: 11642813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
48
|
Goldner JA. An overview of legal controls on human experimentation and the regulatory implications of taking Professor Katz seriously. St Louis Univ Law J 2001; 38:63-134. [PMID: 11656325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|
49
|
|
50
|
Caplan AL. Are existing safeguards adequate? J Calif Alliance Ment Ill 2001; 5:36-8. [PMID: 11653316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
|