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Battaglia S, Nazzi C, Fullana MA, di Pellegrino G, Borgomaneri S. 'Nip it in the bud': Low-frequency rTMS of the prefrontal cortex disrupts threat memory consolidation in humans. Behav Res Ther 2024; 178:104548. [PMID: 38704974 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2024.104548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
It is still unclear how the human brain consolidates aversive (e.g., traumatic) memories and whether this process can be disrupted. We hypothesized that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is crucially involved in threat memory consolidation. To test this, we used low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (LF-rTMS) within the memory stabilization time window to disrupt the expression of threat memory. We combined a differential threat-conditioning paradigm with LF-rTMS targeting the dlPFC in the critical condition, and occipital cortex stimulation, delayed dlPFC stimulation, and sham stimulation as control conditions. In the critical condition, defensive reactions to threat were reduced immediately after brain stimulation, and 1 h and 24 h later. In stark contrast, no decrease was observed in the control conditions, thus showing both the anatomical and temporal specificity of our intervention. We provide causal evidence that selectively targeting the dlPFC within the early consolidation period prevents the persistence and return of conditioned responses. Furthermore, memory disruption lasted longer than the inhibitory window created by our TMS protocol, which suggests that we influenced dlPFC neural activity and hampered the underlying, time-dependent consolidation process. These results provide important insights for future clinical applications aimed at interfering with the consolidation of aversive, threat-related memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Battaglia
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology "Renzo Canestrari", Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521, Cesena, Italy; Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10124, Turin, Italy.
| | - Claudio Nazzi
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology "Renzo Canestrari", Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521, Cesena, Italy
| | - Miquel A Fullana
- Adult Psychiatry and Psychology Department, Institute of Neurosciences, Hospital Clinic, 08036, Barcelona, Spain; Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), CIBERSAM, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Giuseppe di Pellegrino
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology "Renzo Canestrari", Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521, Cesena, Italy
| | - Sara Borgomaneri
- Center for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology "Renzo Canestrari", Cesena Campus, Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, 47521, Cesena, Italy.
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2
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Stussi Y, Coppin G. Letter to the Editor: Stimulus intensities and sensory modalities constitute two major challenges for online threat conditioning research. Biol Psychol 2024:108805. [PMID: 38679403 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoann Stussi
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, Campus Biotech, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Psychology, FPSE, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Géraldine Coppin
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, Campus Biotech, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland
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3
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Lam CLM, Barry TJ, Yiend J, Lee TMC. The role of consciousness in threat extinction learning. Conscious Cogn 2023; 116:103599. [PMID: 37976781 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Extinction learning is regarded as a core mechanism underlying exposure therapy. The extent to which learned threats can be extinguished without conscious awareness is a controversial and on-going debate. We investigated whether implicit vs. explicit exposure to a threatened stimulus can modulate defence responses measured using pupillometry. Healthy participants underwent a threat conditioning paradigm in which one of the conditioned stimuli (CS) was perceptually suppressed using continuous flash suppression (CFS). Participants' pupillary responses, CS pleasantness ratings, and trial-by-trial awareness of the CS were recorded. During Extinction, participants' pupils dilated more in the trials in which they were unaware of the CS than in those in which they were aware of it (Cohen's d = 0.57). After reinstatement, the percentage of fear recovery was greater for the CFS-suppressed CS than the CS with full awareness. The current study suggests that the modulation of fear responses by extinction with reduced visual awareness is weaker compared to extinction with full perceptual awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlene L M Lam
- The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Laboratory of Clinical Psychology and Affective Neuroscience, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Tom J Barry
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, UK
| | - Jenny Yiend
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Tatia M C Lee
- The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Laboratory of Clinical Psychology and Affective Neuroscience, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, Hong Kong
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4
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Baumgartner NE, Biraud MC, Lucas EK. Sex differences in socioemotional behavior and changes in ventral hippocampal transcription across aging in C57Bl/6J mice. Neurobiol Aging 2023; 130:141-153. [PMID: 37524006 PMCID: PMC10629502 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Socioemotional health is positively correlated with improved cognitive and physical aging. Despite known sex differences in socioemotional behaviors and the trajectory of aging, the interactive effects between sex and aging on socioemotional outcomes are poorly understood. We performed the most comprehensive assessment of sex differences in socioemotional behaviors in C57Bl/6J mice across aging to date. Compared to males, females exhibited decreased anxiety-like behavior and social preference but increased social recognition. With age, anxiety-like behavior, cued threat memory generalization, and social preference increased in both sexes. To investigate potential neural mechanisms underlying these behavioral changes, we analyzed transcriptional neuropathology markers in the ventral hippocampus and found age-related changes in genes related to activated microglia, angiogenesis, and cytokines. Sex differences emerged in the timing, direction, and magnitude of these changes, independent of reproductive senescence in aged females. Interestingly, female-specific upregulation of autophagy-related genes correlated with age-related behavioral changes selectively in females. These novel findings reveal critical sex differences in trajectories of ventral hippocampal aging that may contribute to sex- and age-related differences in socioemotional outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina E Baumgartner
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA; Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Mandy C Biraud
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Elizabeth K Lucas
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, Heersink School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA; Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
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5
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Lubin RE, Fitzgerald HE, Rosenfield D, Carpenter JK, Papini S, Dutcher CD, Dowd SM, Hofmann SG, Pollack MH, Smits JAJ, Otto MW. Using pre-treatment de novo threat conditioning outcomes to predict treatment response to DCS augmentation of exposure-based CBT. J Psychiatr Res 2023; 164:357-363. [PMID: 37399757 PMCID: PMC10557473 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over a decade and a half of research has resulted in inconsistent evidence for the efficacy of d-cycloserine (DCS), a partial glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate agonist, for augmenting exposure-based cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety- and fear-based disorders. These variable findings have motivated the search for moderators of DCS augmentation efficacy. METHODS In this secondary analysis of a previous randomized clinical trial, we evaluated the value of de novo threat conditioning outcomes-degree of threat acquisition, extinction, and extinction retention-for predicting treatment response to exposure-based CBT for social anxiety disorder, applied with and without DCS augmentation in a sample of 59 outpatients. RESULTS We found that average differential skin conductance response (SCR) during extinction and extinction retention significantly moderated the prediction of clinical response to DCS: participants with poorer extinction and extinction retention showed relatively improved treatment response with DCS. No such effects were found for expectancy ratings, consistent with accounts of DCS selectively aiding lower-order but not higher-order extinction learning. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide support for extinction and extinction retention outcomes from threat conditioning as potential pre-treatment biomarkers for DCS augmentation benefits. Independent of DCS augmentation, the current study did not support threat conditioning outcomes as useful for predicting response to exposure-based CBT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca E Lubin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 900 Commonwealth Ave, 2nd Fl, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
| | - Hayley E Fitzgerald
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 900 Commonwealth Ave, 2nd Fl, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - David Rosenfield
- Department of Psychology, Southern Methodist University, 6116 North Central Expressway, Dallas, TX, 75206, USA
| | - Joseph K Carpenter
- National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Women's Health Sciences Division, 150 S Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02130, USA; VA Boston Healthcare System, 150 S Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02130, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, 72 E Concord St, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Santiago Papini
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, 2000 Broadway, Oakland, CA, 94612, USA
| | - Christina D Dutcher
- Institute of Mental Health Research and Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E Dean Keeton St, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Sheila M Dowd
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1645 West Jackson Blvd Suite 400, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Stefan G Hofmann
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Philipps University Marburg, Schulstrasse 12, 35037, Marburg/Lahn, Germany
| | - Mark H Pollack
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1645 West Jackson Blvd Suite 400, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA; Sage Therapeutics, 215 First St, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Jasper A J Smits
- Institute of Mental Health Research and Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, 108 E Dean Keeton St, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Michael W Otto
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 900 Commonwealth Ave, 2nd Fl, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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6
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Bragdon LB, Eng GK, Recchia N, Collins KA, Stern ER. Cognitive Neuroscience of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2023; 46:53-67. [PMID: 36740355 DOI: 10.1016/j.psc.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive neuroscientific research has the ability to yield important insights into the complex neurobiological processes underlying obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). This article provides an updated review of neuroimaging studies in seven neurocognitive domains. Findings from the literature are discussed in the context of obsessive-compulsive phenomenology and treatment. Expanding our knowledge of the neural mechanisms involved in OCD could help optimize treatment outcomes and guide the development of novel interventions.
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7
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Picco S, Bavassi L, Fernández RS, Pedreira ME. Highly Demand Working Memory Intervention Weakens a Reactivated Threat Memory and the Associated Cognitive Biases. Neuroscience 2022; 497:257-270. [PMID: 35803491 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are the most frequent type of mental disorder. Threat-conditioning memory plays a central role in anxiety disorders, impacting complex cognitive systems by modifying behavioral responses to fearful stimuli and inducing an overestimation of potential threats. Here, we analyzed the reminder-dependent amnesia on physiological responses, unconditioned stimulus (US) expectancy ratings, and measures of cognitive bias towards the threat of a threat-conditioning memory. Subjects received differential threat-conditioning. Twenty-four hours later, after reactivation of the memory of threat-conditioning, one group performed a high demand working memory task (HWM) and a second group a low demand working memory task (LWM). A third group only performed the HWM task. Retention of conditioned threat memory was tested on Day 3 in an extinction session followed by a reinstatement test. Tasks targeting stimulus representation, valuation, and attentional bias towards threat were performed. We show that the reminder-dependent intervention with an HWM weakened memory retention as expressed in skin conductance response (SCR) and faded the representation and valuation towards the threat, but it did not affect US expectancy or attentional bias. Our findings provide evidence for the experimental psychopathology approach opening the possibility to weaken both Threat conditioning memory and the systems associated with the maintenance of anxiety features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soledad Picco
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIByNE)-CONICET, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luz Bavassi
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIByNE)-CONICET, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rodrigo S Fernández
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIByNE)-CONICET, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María E Pedreira
- Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIByNE)-CONICET, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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8
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Callaghan BL, Choy T, O'Sullivan K, Routhier E, Cabrera N, Goode V, Klein T, Tottenham N. Being the third wheel: Toddlers use bystander learning to acquire cue-specific valence knowledge. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 219:105391. [PMID: 35276421 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Observing others is an important means of gathering information by proxy regarding safety and danger, a form of learning that is available as early as infancy. In two experiments, we examined the specificity and retention of emotional eavesdropping (i.e., bystander learning) on cue-specific discriminant learning during toddlerhood. After witnessing one adult admonish another for playing with Toy A (with no admonishment for Toy B), toddlers learned to choose Toy B for themselves regardless of whether they were tested immediately or 2 weeks later (Experiment 1). However, if asked to make a toy choice for someone else (i.e., when toddlers' personal risk was lower), approximately half the toddlers instead selected Toy A (Experiment 2). However, such choices were accompanied by toddlers' social monitoring of the adults, suggesting that toddlers may have been attempting to safely gain (via surrogacy) more information about risk contingencies. These findings suggest that toddlers can learn to discriminate valence in a cue-specific manner through social observation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget L Callaghan
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Tricia Choy
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Kaitlin O'Sullivan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, School of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
| | - Emma Routhier
- Barnard Center for Toddler Development, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Nora Cabrera
- Barnard Center for Toddler Development, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Victoria Goode
- Barnard Center for Toddler Development, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Tovah Klein
- Barnard Center for Toddler Development, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Nim Tottenham
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
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Quintero MJ, Flores A, Gutiérrez-Huerta MT, Molina-Guerrero P, López FJ, Morís J. Limitations of occasional reinforced extinction to alleviate spontaneous recovery and reinstatement effects: Evidence for a trial-signalling mechanism. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2021; 75:765-783. [PMID: 34428978 DOI: 10.1177/17470218211043434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fear extinction is not permanent but is instead more vulnerable than the original fear memory, as traditionally shown by the return of fear phenomena. Because of this, techniques to mitigate the return of fear are needed in the clinical treatment of related psychological conditions. One promising strategy is the occasional reinforced extinction treatment, introducing a gradual and sparse number of conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus (CS-US) pairings within the extinction treatment. We present the results of three experiments in which we used a threat conditioning procedure in humans. Our main aim was to evaluate whether occasional reinforced extinction could reduce two different forms of relapse: spontaneous recovery (Experiments 1 and 2) and reinstatement (Experiment 3). Contrary to our predictions and previous literature, the results indicate that an occasional reinforcement treatment did not mitigate relapse compared with standard extinction. From a theoretical standpoint, these results are more consistent with the idea that extinction entails the acquisition of new knowledge than with the idea that there are conditions in which extinction leads to a weakening of the original fear memory. These findings also question the generality of the potential benefits of using occasional reinforced extinction in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- María J Quintero
- Department of Basic Psychology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| | - Amanda Flores
- Department of Basic Psychology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| | | | | | - Francisco J López
- Department of Basic Psychology, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Málaga, Spain
| | - Joaquín Morís
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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10
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Kanen JW, Arntz FE, Yellowlees R, Christmas DM, Price A, Apergis-Schoute AM, Sahakian BJ, Cardinal RN, Robbins TW. Effect of Tryptophan Depletion on Conditioned Threat Memory Expression: Role of Intolerance of Uncertainty. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 2021; 6:590-598. [PMID: 33631385 PMCID: PMC8099731 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Background Responding emotionally to danger is critical for survival. Normal functioning also requires flexible alteration of emotional responses when a threat becomes safe. Aberrant threat and safety learning occur in many psychiatric disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia, in which emotional responses can persist pathologically. While there is evidence that threat and safety learning can be modulated by the serotonin systems, there have been few studies in humans. We addressed a critical clinically relevant question: How does lowering serotonin affect memory retention of conditioned threat and safety memory? Methods Forty-seven healthy participants underwent conditioning to two stimuli predictive of threat on day 1. One stimulus but not the other was subsequently presented in an extinction session. Emotional responding was assessed by the skin conductance response. On day 2, we employed acute dietary tryptophan depletion to lower serotonin temporarily, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized between-groups design. We then tested for the retention of conditioned threat and extinction memory. We also measured self-reported intolerance of uncertainty, known to modulate threat memory expression. Results The expression of emotional memory was attenuated in participants who had undergone tryptophan depletion. Individuals who were more intolerant of uncertainty showed even greater attenuation of emotion following depletion. Conclusions These results support the view that serotonin is involved in predicting aversive outcomes and refine our understanding of the role of serotonin in the persistence of emotional responsivity, with implications for individual differences in vulnerability to psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Kanen
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Frederique E Arntz
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Robyn Yellowlees
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Section of Eating Disorders, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David M Christmas
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Annabel Price
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Annemieke M Apergis-Schoute
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara J Sahakian
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Rudolf N Cardinal
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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11
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Bach DR, Melinscak F. Psychophysiological modelling and the measurement of fear conditioning. Behav Res Ther 2020; 127:103576. [PMID: 32087391 PMCID: PMC7078750 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Quantification of fear conditioning is paramount to many clinical and translational studies on aversive learning. Various measures of fear conditioning co-exist, including different observables and different methods of pre-processing. Here, we first argue that low measurement error is a rational desideratum for any measurement technique. We then show that measurement error can be approximated in benchmark experiments by how closely intended fear memory relates to measured fear memory, a quantity that we term retrodictive validity. From this perspective, we discuss different approaches commonly used to quantify fear conditioning. One of these is psychophysiological modelling (PsPM). This builds on a measurement model that describes how a psychological variable, such as fear memory, influences a physiological measure. This model is statistically inverted to estimate the most likely value of the psychological variable, given the measured data. We review existing PsPMs for skin conductance, pupil size, heart period, respiration, and startle eye-blink. We illustrate the benefit of PsPMs in terms of retrodictive validity and translate this into sample size required to achieve a desired level of statistical power. This sample size can differ up to a factor of three between different observables, and between the best, and the current standard, data pre-processing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik R Bach
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, 10-12 Russell Square, London, WC1B 5EH, United Kingdom; Computational Psychiatry Research, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Filip Melinscak
- Computational Psychiatry Research, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland.
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12
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Abstract
The measurement of Pavlovian forms of fear extinction offers a relatively simple behavioral preparation that is nonetheless tractable, from a translational perspective, as an approach to study mechanisms of exposure therapy and biological underpinnings of anxiety and trauma-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Deficient fear extinction is considered a robust clinical endophenotype for these disorders and, as such, has particular significance in the current "age of RDoC (research domain criteria)." Various rodent models of impaired extinction have thus been generated with the objective of approximating this clinical, relapse prone aberrant extinction learning. These models have helped to reveal neurobiological correlates of extinction circuitry failure, gene variants, and other mechanisms underlying deficient fear extinction. In addition, they are increasingly serving as tools to investigate ways to therapeutically overcome poor extinction to support long-term retention of extinction memory and thus protection against various forms of fear relapse; modeled in the laboratory by measuring spontaneous recovery, reinstatement and renewal of fear. In the current article, we review models of impaired extinction built around (1) experimentally induced brain region and neural circuit disruptions (2) spontaneously-arising and laboratory-induced genetic modifications, or (3) exposure to environmental insults, including stress, drugs of abuse, and unhealthy diet. Collectively, these models have been instrumental in advancing in our understanding of extinction failure and underlying susceptibilities at the neural, genetic, molecular, and neurochemical levels; generating renewed interest in developing novel, targeted and effective therapeutic treatments for anxiety and trauma-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Singewald
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Andrew Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD USA
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13
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Brazil IA, Mathys CD, Popma A, Hoppenbrouwers SS, Cohn MD. Representational Uncertainty in the Brain During Threat Conditioning and the Link With Psychopathic Traits. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 2017; 2:689-95. [PMID: 29560903 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psychopathy has repeatedly been linked to disturbed associative learning from aversive events (i.e., threat conditioning). Optimal threat conditioning requires the generation of internal representations of stimulus-outcome contingencies and the rate with which these may change. Because mental representations are imperfect, there will always be uncertainty about the accuracy of representations in the brain (i.e., representational uncertainty). However, it remains unclear 1) to what extent threat conditioning is susceptible to different types of uncertainty in representations about contingencies during the acquisition phase and 2) how representational uncertainty relates to psychopathic features. METHODS A computational model was applied to functional neuroimaging data to estimate uncertainty in representations of contingencies (CoUn) and the rate of change of contingencies (RUn), respectively, from brain activation during the acquisition phase of threat conditioning in 132 adolescents at risk of developing antisocial personality profiles. Next, the associations between these two types of representational uncertainty and psychopathy-related dimensions were examined. RESULTS The left and right amygdala activations were associated with CoUn, while the bilateral insula and the right amygdala were associated with RUn. Different patterns of relationships were found between psychopathic features and each type of uncertainty. Callous-unemotional traits and impulsive-irresponsible traits uniquely predicted increased CoUn, while only impulsive-irresponsible traits predicted increased RUn. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that 1) the insula and amygdala differ in how these regions are affected by different types of representational uncertainty during threat conditioning and 2) CoUn and RUn have different patterns of relationships with psychopathy-related dimensions.
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Abstract
Memories of threatening, fear-evoking events can persist even over a lifetime. While fear memory is widely considered to be a highly persistent and durable form of memory, its circuits are not. This article reviews the dynamic temporal representation of remote fear memory in the brain, at the level of local circuits and distributed networks. Data from the study of Pavlovian cued fear conditioning suggests memory retrieval remains amygdala-dependent, even over protracted time scales, all the while interconnected cortical and subcortical circuits are newly recruited and progressively reorganized. A deeper understanding into how the neurocircuitry of cued fear memory reorganizes with the passage of time will advance our ongoing search for the elusive physical changes representing fear memories in the brain. Considering that persistent, pathological fear memories are a hallmark feature of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the behavioral and circuit-level study of remote cued fear memory retrieval adds a key element towards a systems understanding of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadley C Bergstrom
- Department of Psychological Science, Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, United States.
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