Exploring harmonic walking development in children with unilateral cerebral palsy and typically developing toddlers: Insights from walking experience

This longitudinal study investigated the impact of the first independent steps on harmonic gait development in unilateral cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing (TD) children. We analysed the gait ratio values (GR) by comparing the duration of stride/stance, stance/swing and swing/double support phases. Our investigation focused on identifying a potential trend towards the golden ratio value of 1.618, which has been observed in the locomotion of healthy adults as a characteristic of harmonic walking. Locomotor ability was assessed in both groups at different developmental stages: before and after the emergence of independent walking. Results revealed that an exponential fit was observed only after the first unsupported steps were taken. TD children achieved harmonic walking within a relatively short period (approximately one month) compared to children with CP, who took about seven months to develop harmonic walking. Converging values for stride/stance and stance/swing gait ratios, averaged on the two legs, closely approached the golden ratio in TD children (R2 = 0.9) with no difference in the analysis of the left vs right leg separately. In contrast, children with CP exhibited a trend for stride/stance and stance/swing (R2 = 0.7), with distinct trends observed for the most affected leg which did not reach the golden ratio value for the stride/stance ratio (GR = 1.5), while the least affected leg exceeded it (GR = 1.7). On the contrary, the opposite trend was observed for the stance/swing ratio. These findings indicate an overall harmonic walking in children with CP despite the presence of asymmetry between the two legs. These results underscore the crucial role of the first independent steps in the progressive development of harmonic gait over time.

The 100 ml-Timed Water Swallow Test: Pilot Data from Children with No Dysphagia

Dysphagia screening tests are useful in identifying possible dysphagia for further evaluation and in supporting feeding recommendations. This study aimed to investigate swallowing parameters in children, while widening the pool of data available, using the '100 ml-Timed Water Swallow Test' (100 ml-TWST). Sixty Singaporean children aged 4 to 18 years old completed the 100 ml-TWST via a cup and a straw. Task completion, presence of cough, choke or throat clear, post-swallow voice quality, total time taken and number of swallows were observed. Subsequently, analysis of time per swallow (T/S), volume per swallow (V/S) and volume per time or swallowing capacity (V/T) were performed. Higher tendencies for coughing and task incompletion were observed in younger participants. A shorter time taken, fewer number of swallows, greater V/S and greater swallowing capacity were observed for adolescent or male participants, or via the mode of cup drinking. These could be due to oropharyngeal structural changes and swallow maturation with age, an increased capacity of oropharyngeal structures for swallowing in adolescent males, and more controlled or paced drinking from a straw. A plateau in time taken, number of swallows and swallowing capacity in adolescence were also observed, possibly indicating an emerging maturation of swallow functions during that period. Interestingly, speed of bolus movement was largely unaffected by age, gender and mode of drinking. Pilot data for children with no dysphagia have been established, while gaining insight into the swallowing parameters and maturation process in the paediatric population.

Assessment of auditory perception abilities using temporal envelope and fine structure processing in children with self-limited epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes

OBJECTIVES

Children with self-limited epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (SeLECTS) exhibit difficulty processing spoken messages without hearing loss. The temporal envelope and fine structure processing abilities are the fundamental aspects of the normal listening process. There is limited literature on the temporal envelope and fine structure processing in children with SeLECTS. We evaluated the temporal envelope and fine structure processing in children with SeLECTS.

DESIGN

The study included 35 children with SeLECTS and 50 typically developing children (TDC). The temporal envelope processing was measured using the temporal modulation transfer function (TMTF) and temporal fine structure using the temporal fine structure low-frequency (TFS LF) test. The TMTF was measured for the modulation rates 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 Hz. The TFS LF was done for 250, 500 and 750 Hz.

RESULTS

The difference in modulation detection thresholds at 4 Hz was not found to be significant, whereas there was a significant difference in modulation detection thresholds observed for all the other modulation frequencies (p < 0.05) between the children with SeLECTS and TDC. The thresholds at 250, 500 and 750 Hz were higher (poorer) for children with SeLECTS than the TDC and was significant (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The TMTF and TFS LF tests were of practical use in evaluating temporal envelope and fine structure processing abilities in children with SeLECTS. The results suggest that children with SeLECTS have a poor temporal envelope and fine structure processing compared to the TDC.

Gender Differences in Auditory and Visual Attentional Performance in Children with and without ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Despite the relatively high prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the impairment of ADHD in women is underestimated due to the different ways the phenomenon manifests compared to traditional male symptoms. In order to close the gender gap in diagnosis and treatment, this study aims to explore the impact of gender on auditory and visual attention in children with and without ADHD.

METHOD

A total of 220 children with and without ADHD participated in this study. Their auditory and visual attention performances were analyzed by comparative computerized auditory and visual subtests.

RESULTS

Auditory and visual attention performance in children with and without ADHD did affect by gender, including typically developing (TD) boys are better than TD girls at distinguishing visual targets from non-target stimuli. When performing attention tasks, TD girls generally maintained a cautious response, which was different from TD boys, who generally adopted positive response methods. ADHD girls suffered from more serious auditory inattention problems than ADHD boys; however, ADHD boys suffered from more auditory and visual impulsive problems than ADHD girls. The internal attention problems of female ADHD children were broader than that of their male ADHD peers and were also more severe, especially in problems of auditory omission and auditory response acuity.

CONCLUSIONS

ADHD children had a significant gap in auditory and visual attention performance compared to TD children. The research results support the impact of gender on the performance of auditory and visual attention in children with and without ADHD.

Dataset of 3D gait analysis in typically developing children walking at three different speeds on an instrumented treadmill in virtual reality

In this article, gait data of typically developing (TD) children (24 boys/31 girls, mean (95% confidence interval) age 9.38 (8.51 - 10.25) years, body mass 35.67 (31.40 - 39.94) kg, leg length 0.73 (0.70 - 0.76) m, and height 1.41 (1.35 - 1.46) m) walking at different walking speeds is shared publicly. Raw and processed data is presented for each child separately and includes data of each single step of both legs. Beside, the subject demographics and the results from the physical examination are presented allowing to select TD children from the database to create a matched group, based on specific parameters (e.g. sex and body weight). For clinical application, gait data is also presented per age group, which provides quick insight into the normal gait pattern of TD children of varying age. Gait analysis was performed during treadmill walking in a virtual environment using the Computer Assisted Rehabilitation Environment (CAREN). The human body lower limb model with trunk markers (HBM2) was used as biomechanical model. Children walked at comfortable walking speed, 30% slower and 30% faster (random sequence) while wearing gymnastic shoes and a safety harness to prevent falling. For each speed condition, 250 steps were recorded. Data quality check, step detection and the calculation of gait parameters was done by custom made Matlab algorithms. Raw data files are provided per walking speed, for each child separately. The raw data is exported from the CAREN software (D-flow) and is provided in .mox and .txt files. It includes the output from the models such as subject data, marker and force data, kinematic data (joint angles), kinetic data (joint moments, GRFs, joint powers), as well as CoM data and EMG data (the last two are not described in this manuscript), for each speed condition and each child. Unfiltered and filtered data are included. C3D files with raw marker and GRF data were recorded in Nexus (Vicon software) and are available upon request. After analyzing the raw data into Matlab (R2016a, Mathworks) using custom made Matlab algorithms, processed data is obtained. The processed data is provided in .xls files and is also presented for each child separately. It contains spatiotemporal parameters, 3D joint angles, anterior-posterior and vertical ground reaction forces (GRF), 3D joint moments and sagittal joint power of each step of the left and right leg. In addition to each individual's data, overview files (.xls) are created per walking speed condition. These overviews present the averaged gait parameter (e.g. joint angle), calculated over all valid steps, of each child.

Factorial Validity of the Theory of Mind Inventory-2 in Typically Developing Children

The Theory of Mind Inventory-2 (ToMI-2) is a promising measure for assessing theory of mind (ToM) and social-related functions. However, limited evidence on its factorial validity hampers score interpretation. To examine the factorial validity, confirmatory factor analysis for two currently-available structures was performed in 420 typically developing children aged three to seven years. One, the development-based structure, contains three stages of ToM development: the early, basic, and advanced ToM stages. The other, the social-related structure, comprises three social-related ToM functions: emotion recognition, mental state term comprehension, and pragmatics. The results showed that these structures and the unidimensionality of each domain were not supported even after modifications. Thus, further revisions and examinations of the underlying structures of the ToMI-2 are needed.

Performance of a Closed Set Picture Identification Test in Tamil for Children with Cochlear Implant

The study attempted to assess the closed set word identification abilities in children with cochlear implant (CI) with a picture identification test developed in Tamil. The test was validated on typically developing children with normal hearing (NH) to build a reference for comparison. Participants for the study included 205 children with NH between the age range of 3-6 years and 45 children with cochlear implant within the age range of 3-11 years. The picture identification test was developed using bisyllabic words with corresponding pictures in Tamil. Two lists were created with 25 words each and administered to the children with NH and CI. The scores of both the groups were analysed. The results indicated that the mean scores improved as age increased for children in the NH group. Also, there was no significant difference in performance between the two-word lists. Significant difference in scores was noted between the CI and the NH group (p < 0.01). However, the mean scores in the CI group increased as the experience with CI increased. The picture identification test in Tamil is deemed appropriate to elicit closed set word identification responses for children with CI between the age of 3-6 years. The test will provide supplemental information for mapping and to plan habilitation for children with CI.

Comparison of sagittal plane gait characteristics between the overground and treadmill approach for gait analysis in typically developing children

Background

Instrumented treadmills have become more mainstream in clinical assessment of gait disorders in children, and are increasingly being applied as an alternative to overground gait analysis. Both approaches differ in multiple elements of set-up (e.g., overground versus treadmill, Pug-in Gait versus Human Body Model-II), workflow (e.g., limited amount of steps versus many successive steps) and post-processing of data (e.g., different filter techniques). These individual elements have shown to affect gait. Since the approaches are used in parallel in clinical practice, insight into the compound effect of the multiple different elements on gait is essential. This study investigates whether the outcomes of two approaches for 3D gait analysis are interchangeable in typically developing children.

Methods

Spatiotemporal parameters, sagittal joint angles and moments, and ground reaction forces were measured in typically developing children aged 3-17 years using the overground (overground walking, conventional lab environment, Plug-In Gait) and treadmill (treadmill walking in virtual environment, Human Body Model-II) approach. Spatiotemporal and coefficient of variation parameters, and peak values in kinematics and kinetics of both approaches were compared using repeated measures tests. Kinematic and kinetic waveforms from both approaches were compared using statistical parametric mapping (SPM). Differences were quantified by mean differences and root mean square differences.

Results

Children walked slower, with lower stride and stance time and shorter and wider steps with the treadmill approach than with the overground approach. Mean differences ranged from 0.02 s for stride time to 3.3 cm for step width. The patterns of sagittal kinematic and kinetic waveforms were equivalent for both approaches, but significant differences were found in amplitude. Overall, the peak joint angles were larger during the treadmill approach, showing mean differences ranging from 0.84° (pelvic tilt) to 6.42° (peak knee flexion during swing). Mean difference in peak moments ranged from 0.02 Nm/kg (peak knee extension moment) to 0.32 Nm/kg (peak hip extension moment), showing overall decreased joint moments with the treadmill approach. Normalised ground reaction forces showed mean differences ranging from 0.001 to 0.024.

Conclusion

The overground and treadmill approach to 3D gait analysis yield different sagittal gait characteristics. The systematic differences can be due to important changes in the neuromechanics of gait and to methodological choices used in both approaches, such as the biomechanical model or the walkway versus treadmill. The overview of small differences presented in this study is essential to correctly interpret the results and needs to be taken into account when data is interchanged between approaches. Together with the research/clinical question and the context of the child, the insight gained can be used to determine the best approach.

Trends in Performance Using Early Speech Perception Test in Typically Developing Tamil-Speaking Children

Background and Objectives

The study attempted to trace age-related changes in speech perception in typically developing children (≥3 to ≤6 years) using the “Early Speech Perception (ESP)” in Tamil. The test was developed in line with the original English version of ESP but adapted to suit the linguistic requirement of the Tamil language.

Subjects and Methods

Using a cross-sectional design, the test was administered to 205 children with normal hearing who were classified into three age groups (≥3 to ≤4, >4 to ≤5, and >5 to ≤6 years). The developed test had three subtests (syllable categorization, bisyllable word identification, and trisyllable word identification).

Results

All three age groups obtained perfect or near-perfect scores on the three subtests of ESP. There was no significant difference observed between the two adjacent age groups (≥3 to ≤4 vs. >4 to ≤5 years, >4 to ≤5 vs. >5 to ≤6 years) for all three subtests. However, significant differences were seen only between the youngest and the oldest age groups for the three subtests (≥3 to ≤4 vs. >5 to ≤6 years).

Conclusions

The results indicated that ESP in Tamil can be performed effectively in all the three age groups studied.

Mind wandering and executive dysfunction predict children's performance in the metronome response task

Mind wandering is a ubiquitous experience during adulthood and has received significant scholarly attention in recent years. Relatively few studies, however, have examined the phenomenon in children. Building on recent work, the current study examined the frequency and validity of children's reports of mind wandering while completing a minimalistic task previously unused in past child research-the Metronome Response Task (MRT) [Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance (2013), Vol. 39, pp. 1-5]. Furthermore, the current study examined how parent reports of executive dysfunction in daily life relate to children's reports of mind wandering and behavioral performance in the MRT. A total of 81 children aged 7-9 years completed the MRT, the demands of which simply involved pressing a key on a computer keyboard in concert with the unwavering tones of a metronome. Sporadic experience-sampling probes gauged whether children were on-task or mind wandering. Parents also reported on their children's day-to-day difficulties with executive functioning across several domains. A series of multilevel models revealed that children reported being on-task more frequently then mind wandering and that children were more variable and less synchronous in their keypresses preceding reports of mind wandering than preceding reports of being on task. In addition, parent-reported difficulties with behavioral regulation predicted higher rates of mind wandering, whereas both behavioral dysregulation and metacognitive difficulties predicted lower MRT performance. These findings suggest that children are able to reliably report on their experiences of mind wandering in boredom-inducing contexts and advance our understanding of the factors underlying children's experience of mind wandering under real-world conditions.

Development of Emotion Regulation in Typically Developing Children

Emotion regulation (ER) is a complex process that combines inherent as well as environmental and learned components of reactivity and regulation. Elements of ER are present from birth and are elaborated across development. An understanding of emotion dysregulation requires careful examination of all the elements that constitute typical ER so that relevant domains can be therapeutically targeted. This contribution reviews the development of ER in typically developing youth to set the stage for discussion of points of intervention.

The development of the Poggendorff illusion in typically developing children

We examined how the strength of the Poggendorff illusion changes with age in typically developing children. To this end, we recruited children aged 6 to 14 years and quantified the degree to which they experienced the illusion. The illusion was strongest in the youngest children and decreased with age logarithmically-reaching adult levels (as established by an earlier study) by 21.6 years, as determined by nonlinear interpolation. We also measured the ability to align two lines together in a nonillusory condition, receptive language, and abstract reasoning to determine whether changes in illusion strength were also associated with these factors. Alignment-matching abilities, receptive language, and abstract reasoning increased with age. However, only receptive language and abstract reasoning were correlated with illusion strength. Abilities in alignment matching were not related to illusion strength and reached adult levels (as established by a previous study) earlier at 14.7 years, as determined by nonlinear interpolation. A multiple regression analysis further revealed that receptive language and abstract reasoning did not contribute beyond their shared variance with age. Based on these findings, we suggest that the illusion is exaggerated in early development and attenuates as low-level and high-level processes mature. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

The identification of children with autism spectrum disorder by SVM approach on EEG and eye-tracking data

OBJECTIVE

To identify autistic children, we used features extracted from two modalities (EEG and eye-tracking) as input to a machine learning approach (SVM).

METHODS

A total of 97 children aged from 3 to 6 were enrolled in the present study. After resting-state EEG data recording, the children performed eye-tracking tests individually on own-race and other-race stranger faces stimuli. Power spectrum analysis was used for EEG analysis and areas of interest (AOI) were selected for face gaze analysis of eye-tracking data. The minimum redundancy maximum relevance (MRMR) feature selection method combined with SVM classifiers were used for classification of autistic versus typically developing children.

RESULTS

Results showed that classification accuracy from combining two types of data reached a maximum of 85.44%, with AUC = 0.93, when 32 features were selected.

LIMITATIONS

The sample consisted of children aged from 3 to 6, and no younger patients were included.

CONCLUSIONS

Our machine learning approach, combining EEG and eye-tracking data, may be a useful tool for the identification of children with ASD, and may help for diagnostic processes.

The strength of the Shepard illusion in children coincides with age and cognitive skills but not perceptual abilities

We examined how the strength of the Shepard illusion develops with age in typically developing children. To this end, we recruited children between the ages of 6 and 14 years and quantified the degree to which they experienced the illusion. The strength of the illusion increased with age - reaching adult levels by 11.5 years. We also measured abilities in size and shape discrimination, receptive language, and abstract reasoning to determine if changes in illusion strength were also associated with these factors. Abilities in size and shape matching increased with age but did not correlate with the strength of the Shepard illusion. Receptive language and abstract reasoning increased with age and correlated with the strength of the Shepard illusion. However, a multiple regression analysis revealed that they did not contribute beyond their shared variance with age. Based on these findings, we propose that the illusion has a strong acquired component to it and requires the maturation of high-level processes before it is experienced to adult levels at preadolescence.

Mind wandering in children: Examining task-unrelated thoughts in computerized tasks and a classroom lesson, and the association with different executive functions

Mind wandering is associated with worse performance on cognitively demanding tasks, but this concept is largely unexplored in typically developing children and little is known about the relation between mind wandering and specific executive functions (EFs). This study aimed, first, to measure and compare children's mind wandering in controlled computerized tasks as well as in an educational setting and, second, to examine the association between mind wandering and the three core EFs, namely inhibition, working memory, and set shifting/switching. A total of 52 children aged 9-11 years performed a classroom listening task and a computerized EF battery consisting of flanker, running span, and attention switching tasks. Mind wandering was measured using online probed and/or retrospective self-reports of task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs) during task performance. Children reported TUTs on 20-25% of the thought probes, which did not differ between classroom and EF tasks. Regression models, hierarchically adding the three core EFs, accounted for a small but significant portion of variance in TUT frequency when measured in class and retrospectively after EF tasks, but not when measured online in EF tasks. Children with worse inhibition were more prone to mind wander during classroom and EF tasks. Lower attention switching accuracy also explained variation in retrospectively reported TUTs during EF tasks. Working memory was not a significant predictor. These results suggest that mind wandering is common and reliably measurable in children in controlled computerized and educational tasks. Lower executive control abilities predict more frequent mind wandering, although different EFs are related to mind wandering in diverse tasks/measures.

Development of verbal short-term memory and working memory in children with epilepsy: Developmental delay and impact of time-related variables. A cross-sectional study

While short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) are understood as being crucial for learning, and children with epilepsy often experience learning difficulties, little is known about the age-related development of memory span tasks in children with epilepsy. Short-term memory and WM, operationalized as digit span forwards (DSF) or digit span backwards (DSB), respectively, were studied. Participants were 314 children with epilepsy and 327 typically developing children in ages between 5 and 15years and full scale intelligence quotient (FS-IQ)≥75. Cross-sectional analyses of the data were done with analyses of variance and analyses of covariance ((M)ANCOVAs) and generalized linear analyses. The analyses revealed that STM problems in epilepsy were mediated by age-related gains in WM as well as by differences in IQ. Working memory developed at a quick pace in the younger children, the pace slowed down to some extent in the later primary school years and resumed again later on. Working memory problems prevailed in epilepsy, independent of IQ and development of STM. Timing of the epilepsy in terms of age at onset and duration determined memory development. The youngest children with epilepsy showed age-appropriate development in STM but were the most vulnerable in terms of WM development. Later in the course of the epilepsy, the WM problems of the young children attenuated. In later onset epilepsy, WM problems were smaller but persisted over time.

Dissociation of Cross-Sectional Trajectories for Verbal and Visuo-Spatial Working Memory Development in Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome

Working memory (WM) impairments might amplify behavioural difference in genetic syndromes. Murine models of Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome (RTS) evidence memory impairments but there is limited research on memory in RTS. Individuals with RTS and typically developing children completed WM tasks, with participants with RTS completing an IQ assessment and parents/carers completing the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. A cross-sectional trajectory analysis was conducted. There were significant WM span deficits in RTS relative to mental age. Verbal WM span was positively associated with mental age; however, this was not observed for visuo-spatial span. There is a dissociation between WM domains in RTS. Individuals may have difficulties with tasks relying on WM span, above difficulties predicted by overall ability.

3D Multi-segment foot kinematics in children: A developmental study in typically developing boys

BACKGROUND

The relationship between age and 3D rotations objectivized with multisegment foot models has not been quantified until now. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate the relationship between age and multi-segment foot kinematics in a cross-sectional database.

METHODS

Barefoot multi-segment foot kinematics of thirty two typically developing boys, aged 6-20 years, were captured with the Rizzoli Multi-segment Foot Model. One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping linear regression was used to examine the relationship between age and 3D inter-segment rotations of the dominant leg during the full gait cycle.

RESULTS

Age was significantly correlated with sagittal plane kinematics of the midfoot and the calcaneus-metatarsus inter-segment angle (p<0.0125). Age was also correlated with the transverse plane kinematics of the calcaneus-metatarsus angle (p<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Gait labs should consider age related differences and variability if optimal decision making is pursued. It remains unclear if this is of interest for all foot models, however, the current study highlights that this is of particular relevance for foot models which incorporate a separate midfoot segment.

Postural control of typical developing boys during the transition from double-leg stance to single-leg stance

Literature is lacking information about postural control performance of typically developing children during a transition task from double-leg stance to single-leg stance. The purpose of the present study was therefore to evaluate the clinical feasibility of a transition task in typical developing age groups as well as to study the correlation between associated balance measures and age.Thirty-three typically developing boys aged 6-20 years performed a standard transition task from DLS to SLS with eyes open (EO) and eyes closed (EC). Balance features derived from the center of pressure displacement captured by a single force platform were correlated with age on the one hand and considered for differences in the perspective of limb dominance on the other hand.All TDB (typically developing boys) were able to perform the transition task with EO. With respect to EC condition, all TDB from the age group 6-7 years and the youngest of the age group 8-12 years (N = 4) were unable to perform the task. No significant differences were observed between the balance measures of the dominant and non-dominant limbs.With respect to EO condition, correlation analyses indicated that time to new stability point (TNSP) as well as the sway measure after this TNSP were correlated with age (p < 0.0001). For the EC condition, only the anthropometrically scaled sway measure was found to be correlated (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The results provide additional insight into balance development in childhood and may serve as a useful basis for assessing balance impairments in higher functioning children with musculoskeletal problems. What is Known: • Reference data regarding postural balance of typically developing children during walking, running, sit-to-stand, and bipodal and unipodal stance has been well documented in the literature. • These reference data provided not only insight into the maturation process of the postural control system, but also served in diagnosing and managing functional repercussions of neurological and orthopedic pathologies. What is New: • Objective data regarding postural balance of typical developing children during a transition task from double-leg stance to single-leg stance. • Insight into the role of maturation on the postural control system.

Imbalance between the anti- and pro-inflammatory milieu in blood leukocytes of autistic children

Accumulating evidence suggests an association between immune dysfunction and autism disorders in a significant subset of children. In addition, an imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways has been proposed to play an important role in the pathogenesis of several neurodevelopmental disorders including autism; however, the role of anti-inflammatory molecules IL-27 and CTLA-4 and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-21 and IL-22 has not previously been explored in autistic children. In the current study, we investigated the expression of IL-21, IL-22, IL-27, and CD152 (CTLA-4) following an in-vitro immunological challenge of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from children with autism (AU) or typically-developing children (TD) with phorbol-12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and ionomycin. In our study, cells from children with AU had increased IL-21 and IL-22 and decreased CTLA-4 expression on CD4+ T cells as compared with cells from the TD control. Similarly, AU cells showed decreased IL-27 production by CD14+ cells compared to that of TD control cells. These results were confirmed by real-time PCR and western blot analyses. Our study shows dysregulation of the immune balance in cells from autistic children as depicted by enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokines, 'IL-21/IL-22' and decreased anti-inflammatory molecules, 'IL-27/CTLA-4'. Thus, further study of this immune imbalance in autistic children is warranted in order to facilitate development of biomarkers and therapeutics.

Auditory and visual sustained attention in Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Sustained attention (SA) is important to task performance and development of higher functions. It emerges as a separable component of attention during preschool and shows incremental improvements during this stage of development.

AIMS

The current study investigated if auditory and visual SA match developmental level or are particular challenges for youth with DS. Further, we sought to determine if there were modality effects in SA that could predict those seen in short-term memory (STM).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

We compared youth with DS to typically developing youth matched for nonverbal mental age and receptive vocabulary. Groups completed auditory and visual sustained attention to response tests (SARTs) and STM tasks.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Results indicated groups performed similarly on both SARTs, even over varying cognitive ability. Further, within groups participants performed similarly on auditory and visual SARTs, thus SA could not predict modality effects in STM. However, SA did generally predict a significant portion of unique variance in groups' STM.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Ultimately, results suggested both auditory and visual SA match developmental level in DS. Further, SA generally predicts STM, though SA does not necessarily predict the pattern of poor auditory relative to visual STM characteristic of DS.

Developmental trajectories for attention and working memory in healthy Japanese school-aged children

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the developmental trajectories of attention, short-term memory, and working memory in school-aged children using a 10 min test battery of cognitive function.

METHODS

Participants comprised 144 typically developing children (TDC) aged 7-12 years and 24 healthy adults, divided according to age into seven groups (12 males and 12 females for each age group). Participants were assessed using CogHealth, which is a computer-based measure composed of five tasks. We measured attention, short-term memory, and working memory (WM) with visual stimulation. Each task was analyzed for age-related differences in reaction time and accuracy rate.

RESULTS

Attention tasks were faster in stages from the age of 7-10 years. Accuracy rate of short-term memory gradually increased from 12 years of age and suddenly increased and continued to increase at 22 years of age. Accuracy rate of working memory increased until 12 years of age. Correlations were found between the ages and reaction time, and between ages and accuracy rate of the tasks.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that there were rapid improvements in attention, short-term memory, and WM performance between 7 and 10 years of age followed by gradual improvement until 12 years of age. Increase in short-term memory continued until 22 years of age. In our experience CogHealth was an easy and useful measure for the evaluation of cognitive function in school-age children.

Social cognition, face processing, and oxytocin receptor single nucleotide polymorphisms in typically developing children

Recent research has provided evidence of a link between behavioral measures of social cognition (SC) and neural and genetic correlates. Differences in face processing and variations in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene have been associated with SC deficits and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits. Much work has examined the qualitative differences between those with ASD and typically developing (TD) individuals, but very little has been done to quantify the natural variation in ASD-like traits in the typical population. The present study examines this variation in TD children using a multidimensional perspective involving behavior assessment, neural electroencephalogram (EEG) testing, and OXTR genotyping. Children completed a series of neurocognitive assessments, provided saliva samples for sequencing, and completed a face processing task while connected to an EEG. No clear pattern emerged for EEG covariates or genotypes for individual OXTR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). However, SNPs rs2254298 and rs53576 consistently interacted such that the AG/GG allele combination of these SNPs was associated with poorer performance on neurocognitive measures. These results suggest that neither SNP in isolation is risk-conferring, but rather that the combination of rs2254298(A/G) and rs53576(G/G) confers a deleterious effect on SC across several neurocognitive measures.