Influence of transient emotional episodes on affective and cognitive theory of mind

Our emotions may influence how we interact with others. Previous studies have shown an important role of emotion induction in generating empathic reactions towards others' affect. However, it remains unclear whether (and to which extent) our own emotions can influence the ability to infer people's mental states, a process associated with Theory of Mind (ToM) and implicated in the representation of both cognitive (e.g. beliefs and intentions) and affective conditions. We engaged 59 participants in two emotion-induction experiments where they saw joyful, neutral and fearful clips. Subsequently, they were asked to infer other individuals' joy, fear (affective ToM) or beliefs (cognitive ToM) from verbal scenarios. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we found that brain activity in the superior temporal gyrus, precuneus and sensorimotor cortices were modulated by the preceding emotional induction, with lower response when the to-be-inferred emotion was incongruent with the one induced in the observer (affective ToM). Instead, we found no effect of emotion induction on the appraisal of people's beliefs (cognitive ToM). These findings are consistent with embodied accounts of affective ToM, whereby our own emotions alter the engagement of key brain regions for social cognition, depending on the compatibility between one's own and others' affect.

Affective theory of mind impairments underlying callous-unemotional traits and the role of cognitive control

Affective theory of mind (aToM) impairments associated with the youth antisocial phenotype callous-unemotional (CU) traits predict antisocial behaviour above CU traits alone. Importantly, CU traits associate with decrements in complex but not basic aToM. aToM is modulated by cognitive control and CU traits associate with cognitive control impairments; thus, cognitive control is a plausible mechanism underlying aToM impairments in CU traits. Because cognitive control is dependent on the availability of cognitive resources, youth with CU traits may have difficulty with allocating cognitive resources under greater demands that impact complex aToM. To test this, 81 participants (ages 12-14, Female = 51.8%, Male = 48.2%) were recruited to complete a behavioural paradigm that involved an initial aToM task with complex and basic emotions followed by placing additional demands on cognitive control and a final repeat of the same aToM task. Results indicate adolescents higher in CU traits had intact basic aToM but less accuracy in complex aToM that worsened after taxing cognitive control; and this load only required a short duration to account for ToM decrements (200 ms [range 150-1600 ms]). These results demonstrate CU traits association with cognitive control limitations that impact complex aToM. This may partially explain antisocial behaviour associated with CU traits.

Cognitive and Affective Theory of Mind across Adulthood

BACKGROUND

Theory of mind (ToM) is a fundamental aspect of social cognition. Previous studies on age-related changes in mentalizing processes have provided conflicting results. This study aims to investigate the age-related changes in the cognitive and affective components of ToM throughout adulthood.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty-eight healthy participants divided into five age groups (18-40 years old; 41-50 years old; 51-60 years old; 61-70 years; 71-80 years old) underwent tasks assessing the cognitive (ToM Picture Sequencing Task, TMPS, and the Advanced Test of ToM, ATT) and affective (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task, RMET, and the Emotion Attribution Task, EAT) components of ToM, in both verbal and nonverbal modality.

RESULTS

Regarding affective ToM, both the youngest- and middle-old adult groups (61 to 80 years) performed worse than the young and youngest-middle adult groups (18 to 50 years) in the RMET, but no significant differences were found in the EAT. Regarding cognitive ToM, the middle-old adult group (71 to 80 years) performed worse than the young adult group (18 to 40 years) only in the TMPS, but no significant differences were found in the ATT.

CONCLUSION

Rather than a general decline in ToM, our results provide evidence regarding selective changes in ToM in older adults, further confirming the dissociation of cognitive and affective ToM.

[The relationship to the face: from the normal subject to the Alzheimer patient, from the naked face to the masked face, from a humanistic neuropsychology to an embodied ethics]

The relationship to the face weaves close links with identity and otherness. It is not just a means of inter-human knowledge; it is also a major means of self/other communication underpinned by those mentalization networks that open up the attribution of intentions and emotions to others (theory of mind) as well as that particular disposition known as empathy, which enables us to put ourselves in another person’s shoes by feeling and understanding what they are experiencing while remaining ourselves. Neuropsychology attempts to shed light on the brain processes that underlie this encounter with the face and that may be altered by neurodegenerative diseases, and in particular by Alzheimer’s disease. The pandemic period also leads us to examine the clinical consequences of wearing a mask both in normal subjects and in subjects suffering from diseases that affect the relationship with the face of others. A humanistic neuropsychology must integrate an embodied ethics that attempts to discern what, in the perception of the Other, contributes to hindering the expression of otherness, which is inseparable from the human condition. In the pandemic context linked to Covid-19, neuropsychology with its clinical requirements and ethics with its performative aim on care practices, can thus cross-fertilize each other to propose compromises that are certainly attentive to public health but also to the well-being of each human being, especially the most vulnerable.

Motherhood and theory of mind: increased activation in the posterior cingulate cortex and insulae

Despite growing evidence on effects of parenthood on social understanding, little is known about the influence of parenthood on theory of mind (ToM), the capacity to infer mental and affective states of others. It is also unclear whether any possible effects of parenthood on ToM would generalise to inferring states of adults or are specific to children. We investigated neural activation in mothers and women without children while they predicted action intentions from child and adult faces. Region-of-interest analyses showed stronger activation in mothers in the bilateral posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus (ToM-related areas) and insulae (emotion-related areas). Whole-brain analyses revealed that mothers compared to non-mothers more strongly activated areas including the left angular gyrus and the ventral prefrontal cortex but less strongly activated the right supramarginal gyrus and the dorsal prefrontal cortex. These differences were not specific to child stimuli but occurred in response to both adult and child stimuli and might indicate that mothers and non-mothers employ different strategies to infer action intentions from affective faces. Whether these general differences in affective ToM between mothers and non-mothers are due to biological or experience-related changes should be subject of further investigation.

Cognitive and affective theory of mind double dissociation after parietal and temporal lobe tumours

Extensive neuroimaging literature suggests that understanding others' thoughts and emotions engages a wide network encompassing parietal, temporal and medial frontal brain areas. However, the causal role played by these regions in social inferential abilities is still unclear. Moreover very little is known about ToM deficits in brain tumours and whether potential anatomical substrates are comparable to those identified in fMRI literature. This study evaluated the performance of 105 tumour patients, before and immediately after brain surgery, on a cartoon-based non-verbal task evaluating Cognitive (Intention Attribution) and Affective (Emotion Attribution) ToM, as well as a non-social control condition (Causal Inference). Across multiple analyses, we found converging evidence of a double dissociation between patients with right superior parietal damage, selectively impaired in Intention Attribution, and those with right antero-medial temporal lesion, exhibiting deficits only in Emotion attribution. Instead, patients with damage to the frontal cortex were impaired in all kinds of inferential processes, including those from the non-social control conditions. Overall, our data provides novel reliable causal evidence of segregation between different aspects of the ToM network from both the cognitive and also the anatomical point of view.

The relationship between theory of mind and sluggish cognitive tempo in school-age children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder

Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) is considered as a cognitive-emotional style. Theory of mind (ToM) skills form the basis of human cognition and social behavior. The aim of this study is to contribute to SCT literature by examining the relationship between SCT and cognitive and affective ToM in school-age children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Fifty school-age children with ADHD (43 boys and seven girls) and 40 typically developing children (34 boys and six girls) were assessed using Parent-rated Barkley Child Attention Scale and Child Behavior Checklist/6-18, cognitive (first- and second-order ToM) and affective ToM (Reading Mind in the Eyes Test and Unexpected Outcomes Test (UOT)) tests. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to determine the variables that may predict SCT levels in children with ADHD. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder-inattention (Exp(B) = .334, p = .027), internalization (Exp(B) = .305, p = .006), and UOT scores (Exp(B) = .933, p = .015) significantly predicted SCT severity in children with ADHD. SCT severity was significantly associated with impaired cognitive ToM skills as measured by second-order ToM (Exp(B) = 1.933, p = .045). Our findings may indicate that affective ToM developing with age, and impaired cognitive ToM skills are associated with increasing SCT severity.

Emotion processing associated with aggression in early adolescents: A focus on affective theory of mind

Social-emotional factors associated with youth aggression have largely been studied in the context of social information-processing models. The ability to accurately encode and appropriately interpret others' emotions has yet to be fully examined in the context of aggressive behavior, particularly during adolescence. Using cross-sectional data from a sample of 282 at-risk early adolescents, the present study examined associations between teacher-reported aggression and youth performance on a task assessing two components of affective theory of mind: emotion recognition and situational attribution. Results indicated that emotion recognition, but not situational attribution accuracy, was significantly associated with teacher-reported aggressive behavior. Over-recognizing anger and under-recognizing sadness were unique error patterns associated with aggression, and these associations remained significant after controlling for demographics and other key social information-processing variables. Findings suggest that difficulties with emotion processing play an important role in the social information-processing patterns observed in the context of youth aggression. Implications for preventive interventions for youth at risk of engaging in aggressive behavior are discussed.

Developing an understanding of others' emotional states: Relations among affective theory of mind and empathy measures in early childhood

Theory of mind (ToM) consists of cognitive and affective components; however, few studies have evaluated the coherence of affective ToM measures and their associations with empathy. This research examined the relations among affective ToM tasks and assessments of empathy, measured directly and via parent reports in 4- to 6-year-olds. Children (N = 117) completed: an Appearance-Reality Emotion Task, an adapted Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, an Affective Stories Task, and an empathy task. Parents reported on children's ToM and empathy, and language was assessed using a Picture Vocabulary Test. Controlling for language, no relationships were found among affective ToM measures and children's age was only related to the Affective Stories Task. Further, controlling for age, only parent-reported empathy was associated with the Appearance-Reality Emotion Task. Once vocabulary and age were controlled, measures of affective ToM are unrelated and different developmental patterns emerged across measures. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject Affective theory of mind is a distinct subcomponent of theory of mind that corresponds to an independent developmental mechanism. However, little research has been conducted on affective ToM, its developmental trajectory during the preschool years, its assessment, and its relationship with related constructs, such as empathy. What the present study adds Children's performance on affective ToM tasks was unrelated once age and language abilities were accounted for. Thus, there is a need to examine affective ToM and its measurement more extensively to ensure we are effectively capturing this construct. This study was the first to establish a Preschool Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task that uses images of children and pictorial response options and an Affective Stories Task that captures age-related changes in affective ToM beyond language skills.

Mild adverse childhood experiences increase neural efficacy during affective theory of mind

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) affect the development of social cognition (and identify a risk factor for several physical and mental disorders). Theory of Mind (ToM) is a key predictor of social functioning, mental health, and quality of life. No previous study explored the effect of mild ACEs on the neural correlates of ToM in healthy humans. In 23 healthy participants, we used brain blood oxygen level-dependent fMRI to study the effect of ACEs on the neural responses to tasks targeting affective and cognitive ToM. Results pointed out an association between ACEs and a lower neural response in the vermis of the cerebellum (r = -.85), precentral gyrus, and inferior frontal operculum (putative Mirror Neural System, r = -.78) during affective ToM. A lower recruitment of these brain regions, paralleled by the same performance, could express an increased neural efficacy in inferring affective mental states driven by previous experience, in this case, ACEs.

'Emotional Intelligence': Lessons from Lesions

'Emotional intelligence' (EI) is one of the most highly used psychological terms in popular nomenclature, yet its construct, divergent, and predictive validities are contentiously debated. Despite this debate, the EI construct is composed of a set of emotional abilities - recognizing emotional states in the self and others, using emotions to guide thought and behavior, understanding how emotions shape behavior, and emotion regulation - that undoubtedly influence important social and personal outcomes. In this review, evidence from human lesion studies is reviewed in order to provide insight into the necessary brain regions for each of these core emotional abilities. Critically, we consider how this neuropsychological evidence might help to guide efforts to define and measure EI.

Understanding ironic criticism and empathic praise: The role of emotive communication

Ironic criticism and empathic praise are forms of social communication that influence the affective states of others in a negative or positive way. In a sample of 76 typically developing children and adolescents (mean age = 11 years; 4 months; SD: 2 years; 8 months), we studied how understanding of emotional expression (facial expression of emotion) and emotive communication (affective theory of mind) was related to the ability to understand negatively valenced ironic criticism and positively valenced empathic praise. We modelled comprehension of irony and empathy in school-aged children in relation to age and understanding of emotional expression and emotive communication. As expected, children showed significantly better understanding of emotional expression than emotive communication, which requires understanding why someone might mask their inner emotions. Meditational analyses showed that emotive communication partially mediated the relation between age and understanding ironic criticism and empathic praise. These findings suggest that the development of understanding irony and empathy over the school-age years is associated with affective attributions or affective theory of mind. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Theory of mind has been found to be related to the developmental understanding of social communication. Correct interpretation of facial emotional cues is also important for interpreting social communication. What does this study add? Affective components (i.e., affective theory of mind) also contribute to the development of social communication. Emotive communication, the ability to modulate one's emotional expression according to social display rules may be predictive of social communication competency.