Trophoblast glycoprotein is required for efficient synaptic vesicle exocytosis from retinal rod bipolar cells

Introduction

Rod bipolar cells (RBCs) faithfully transmit light-driven signals from rod photoreceptors in the outer retina to third order neurons in the inner retina. Recently, significant work has focused on the role of leucine-rich repeat (LRR) proteins in synaptic development and signal transduction at RBC synapses. We previously identified trophoblast glycoprotein (TPBG) as a novel transmembrane LRR protein localized to the dendrites and axon terminals of RBCs.

Methods

We examined the effects on RBC physiology and retinal processing of TPBG genetic knockout in mice using immunofluorescence and electron microscopy, electroretinogram recording, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and time-resolved membrane capacitance measurements.

Results

The scotopic electroretinogram showed a modest increase in the b-wave and a marked attenuation in oscillatory potentials in the TPBG knockout. No effect of TPBG knockout was observed on the RBC dendritic morphology, TRPM1 currents, or RBC excitability. Because scotopic oscillatory potentials primarily reflect RBC-driven rhythmic activity of the inner retina, we investigated the contribution of TPBG to downstream transmission from RBCs to third-order neurons. Using electron microscopy, we found shorter synaptic ribbons in TPBG knockout axon terminals in RBCs. Time-resolved capacitance measurements indicated that TPBG knockout reduces synaptic vesicle exocytosis and subsequent GABAergic reciprocal feedback without altering voltage-gated Ca2+ currents.

Discussion

TPBG is required for normal synaptic ribbon development and efficient neurotransmitter release from RBCs to downstream cells. Our results highlight a novel synaptic role for TPBG at RBC ribbon synapses and support further examination into the mechanisms by which TPBG regulates RBC physiology and circuit function.

Photolipid excitation triggers depolarizing optocapacitive currents and action potentials

Optically-induced changes in membrane capacitance may regulate neuronal activity without requiring genetic modifications. Previously, they mainly relied on sudden temperature jumps due to light absorption by membrane-associated nanomaterials or water. Yet, nanomaterial targeting or the required high infrared light intensities obstruct broad applicability. Now, we propose a very versatile approach: photolipids (azobenzene-containing diacylglycerols) mediate light-triggered cellular de- or hyperpolarization. As planar bilayer experiments show, the respective currents emerge from millisecond-timescale changes in bilayer capacitance. UV light changes photolipid conformation, which awards embedding plasma membranes with increased capacitance and evokes depolarizing currents. They open voltage-gated sodium channels in cells, generating action potentials. Blue light reduces the area per photolipid, decreasing membrane capacitance and eliciting hyperpolarization. If present, mechanosensitive channels respond to the increased mechanical membrane tension, generating large depolarizing currents that elicit action potentials. Membrane self-insertion of administered photolipids and focused illumination allows cell excitation with high spatiotemporal control.

Capacitive Impedance for Following In-Situ Grafting Kinetics of Diazonium Salts

A new method to follow in-situ grafting kinetics of diazonium compounds based on imposing small amplitude high frequency AC oscillations at grafting potential, is outlined. This enables the time-resolved measurements of capacitive impedance concomitantly with the growth of the organic layer at the working electrode. The impedance values were quantitatively correlated with the ex-situ (from voltammograms) and in-situ (from quartz crystal microbalance) measured surface coverages, providing a validation of the new methodology. The versatility of the developed approach was demonstrated on the grafting via reduction of 4-nitrobenzenediazonium on Au and glassy carbon (GC) substrates and via deposition of in-situ generated diazonium salts from 1-aminoanthraquinone and 4-ferrocenylaniline on GC. The capacitive impedance measurements are simple, fast, and non-destructive, making it an appealing methodology for an exploration of grafting kinetics of a wide range of diazonium salts.

Synaptotagmin-7 places dense-core vesicles at the cell membrane to promote Munc13-2- and Ca2+-dependent priming

Synaptotagmins confer calcium-dependence to the exocytosis of secretory vesicles, but how coexpressed synaptotagmins interact remains unclear. We find that synaptotagmin-1 and synaptotagmin-7 when present alone act as standalone fast and slow Ca²⁺-sensors for vesicle fusion in mouse chromaffin cells. When present together, synaptotagmin-1 and synaptotagmin-7 are found in largely non-overlapping clusters on dense-core vesicles. Synaptotagmin-7 stimulates Ca²⁺-dependent vesicle priming and inhibits depriming, and it promotes ubMunc13-2- and phorbolester-dependent priming, especially at low resting calcium concentrations. The priming effect of synaptotagmin-7 increases the number of vesicles fusing via synaptotagmin-1, while negatively affecting their fusion speed, indicating both synergistic and competitive interactions between synaptotagmins. Synaptotagmin-7 places vesicles in close membrane apposition (<6 nm); without it, vesicles accumulate out of reach of the fusion complex (20-40 nm). We suggest that a synaptotagmin-7-dependent movement toward the membrane is involved in Munc13-2/phorbolester/Ca²⁺-dependent priming as a prelude to fast and slow exocytosis triggering.

Ca2+ -dependent and Ca2+ -independent somatic release from trigeminal neurons

Besides the nerve endings, the soma of trigeminal neurons also respond to membrane depolarizations with the release of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the extracellular space within the ganglion, a process potentially important for the cross-communication between neighboring sensory neurons. In this study, we addressed the dependence of somatic release on Ca²⁺ influx in trigeminal neurons and the involvement of the different types of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ (Cav) channels in the process. Similar to the closely related dorsal root ganglion neurons, we found two kinetically distinct components of somatic release, a faster component stimulated by voltage but independent of the Ca²⁺ influx, and a slower component triggered by Ca²⁺ influx. The Ca²⁺ -dependent component was inhibited 80% by ω-conotoxin-MVIIC, an inhibitor of both N- and P/Q-type Cav channels, and 55% by the P/Q-type selective inhibitor ω-agatoxin-IVA. The selective L-type Ca²⁺ channel inhibitor nimodipine was instead without effect. These results suggest a major involvement of N- and P/Q-, but not L-type Cav channels in the somatic release of trigeminal neurons. Thus antinociceptive Cav channel antagonists acting on the N- and P/Q-type channels may exert their function by also modulating the somatic release and cross-communication between sensory neurons.

Doc2B acts as a calcium sensor for vesicle priming requiring synaptotagmin-1, Munc13-2 and SNAREs

Doc2B is a cytosolic protein with binding sites for Munc13 and Tctex-1 (dynein light chain), and two C2-domains that bind to phospholipids, Ca²⁺ and SNAREs. Whether Doc2B functions as a calcium sensor akin to synaptotagmins, or in other calcium-independent or calcium-dependent capacities is debated. We here show by mutation and overexpression that Doc2B plays distinct roles in two sequential priming steps in mouse adrenal chromaffin cells. Mutating Ca²⁺-coordinating aspartates in the C2A-domain localizes Doc2B permanently at the plasma membrane, and renders an upstream priming step Ca²⁺-independent, whereas a separate function in downstream priming depends on SNARE-binding, Ca²⁺-binding to the C2B-domain of Doc2B, interaction with ubMunc13-2 and the presence of synaptotagmin-1. Another function of Doc2B – inhibition of release during sustained calcium elevations – depends on an overlapping protein domain (the MID-domain), but is separate from its Ca²⁺-dependent priming function. We conclude that Doc2B acts as a vesicle priming protein.

Extension of Helix 12 in Munc18-1 Induces Vesicle Priming

Munc18-1 is essential for vesicle fusion and participates in the docking of large dense-core vesicles to the plasma membrane. Recent structural data suggest that conformational changes in the 12th helix of the Munc18-1 domain 3a within the Munc18-1:syntaxin complex result in an additional interaction with synaptobrevin-2/VAMP2 (vesicle-associated membrane protein 2), leading to SNARE complex formation. To test this hypothesis in living cells, we examined secretion from Munc18-1-null mouse adrenal chromaffin cells expressing Munc18-1 mutants designed to either perturb the extension of helix 12 (Δ324-339), block its interaction with synaptobrevin-2 (L348R), or extend the helix to promote coil-coil interactions with other proteins (P335A). The mutants rescued vesicle docking and syntaxin-1 targeting to the plasma membrane, with the exception of P335A that only supported partial syntaxin-1 targeting. Disruptive mutations (L348R or Δ324-339) lowered the secretory amplitude by decreasing vesicle priming, whereas P335A markedly increased priming and secretory amplitude. The mutants displayed unchanged kinetics and Ca(2+) dependence of fusion, indicating that the mutations specifically affect the vesicle priming step. Mutation of a nearby tyrosine (Y337A), which interacts with closed syntaxin-1, mildly increased secretory amplitude. This correlated with results from an in vitro fusion assay probing the functions of Munc18-1, indicating an easier transition to the extended state in the mutant. Our findings support the notion that a conformational transition within the Munc18-1 domain 3a helix 12 leads to opening of a closed Munc18-1:syntaxin complex, followed by productive SNARE complex assembly and vesicle priming.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

The essential postdocking role of Munc18-1 in vesicular exocytosis has remained elusive, but recent data led to the hypothesis that the extension of helix 12 in Munc18 within domain 3a leads to synaptobrevin-2/VAMP2 interaction and SNARE complex formation. Using both lack-of-function and gain-of-function mutants, we here report that the conformation of helix 12 predicts vesicle priming and secretory amplitude in living chromaffin cells. The effects of mutants on secretion could not be explained by differences in syntaxin-1 chaperoning/localization or vesicle docking, and the fusion kinetics and calcium dependence were unchanged, indicating that the effect of helix 12 extension is specific for the vesicle-priming step. We conclude that a conformational change within helix 12 is responsible for the essential postdocking role of Munc18-1 in neurosecretion.

Exocytosis from chromaffin cells: hydrostatic pressure slows vesicle fusion

Pressure affects reaction kinetics because chemical transitions involve changes in volume, and therefore pressure is a standard thermodynamic parameter to measure these volume changes. Many organisms live in environments at external pressures other than one atmosphere (0.1 MPa). Marine animals have adapted to live at depths of over 7000 m (at pressures over 70 MPa), and microorganisms living in trenches at over 110 MPa have been retrieved. Here, kinetic changes in secretion from chromaffin cells, measured as capacitance changes using the patch-clamp technique at pressures of up to 20 MPa are presented. It is known that these high pressures drastically slow down physiological functions. High hydrostatic pressure also affects the kinetics of ion channel gating and the amount of current carried by them, and it drastically slows down synaptic transmission. The results presented here indicate a similar change in volume (activation volume) of 390 ± 57 Å(3) for large dense-core vesicles undergoing fusion in chromaffin cells and for degranulation of mast cells. It is significantly larger than activation volumes of voltage-gated ion channels in chromaffin cells. This information will be useful in finding possible protein conformational changes during the reactions involved in vesicle fusion and in testing possible molecular dynamic models of secretory processes.

Thyroid hormone is required for pruning, functioning and long-term maintenance of afferent inner hair cell synapses

Functional maturation of afferent synaptic connections to inner hair cells (IHCs) involves pruning of excess synapses formed during development, as well as the strengthening and survival of the retained synapses. These events take place during the thyroid hormone (TH)-critical period of cochlear development, which is in the perinatal period for mice and in the third trimester for humans. Here, we used the hypothyroid Snell dwarf mouse (Pit1(dw)) as a model to study the role of TH in afferent type I synaptic refinement and functional maturation. We observed defects in afferent synaptic pruning and delays in calcium channel clustering in the IHCs of Pit1(dw) mice. Nevertheless, calcium currents and capacitance reached near normal levels in Pit1(dw) IHCs by the age of onset of hearing, despite the excess number of retained synapses. We restored normal synaptic pruning in Pit1(dw) IHCs by supplementing with TH from postnatal day (P)3 to P8, establishing this window as being critical for TH action on this process. Afferent terminals of older Pit1(dw) IHCs showed evidence of excitotoxic damage accompanied by a concomitant reduction in the levels of the glial glutamate transporter, GLAST. Our results indicate that a lack of TH during a critical period of inner ear development causes defects in pruning and long-term homeostatic maintenance of afferent synapses.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels and cAMP-dependent modulation of exocytosis in cultured rat lactotrophs

Hormone and neurotransmitter release from vesicles is mediated by regulated exocytosis, where an aqueous channel-like structure, termed a fusion pore, is formed. It was recently shown that second messenger cAMP modulates the fusion pore, but the detailed mechanisms remain elusive. In this study, we asked whether the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels, which are activated by cAMP, are involved in the regulation of unitary exocytic events. By using the Western blot technique, a real-time PCR, immunocytochemistry in combination with confocal microscopy, and voltage-clamp measurements of hyperpolarizing currents, we show that HCN channels are present in the plasma membrane and in the membrane of secretory vesicles of isolated rat lactotrophs. Single vesicle membrane capacitance measurements of lactotrophs, where HCN channels were either augmented by transfection or blocked with an HCN channel blocker (ZD7288), show modulated fusion pore properties. We suggest that the changes in local cation concentration, mediated through HCN channels, which are located on or near secretory vesicles, have an important role in modulating exocytosis.

Comparison of unitary exocytic events in pituitary lactotrophs and in astrocytes: modeling the discrete open fusion-pore states

In regulated exocytosis the merger between the vesicle and the plasma membranes leads to the formation of an aqueous channel (a fusion-pore), through which vesicular secretions exit into the extracellular space. A fusion pore was thought to be a short-lived intermediate preceding full-fusion of the vesicle and the plasma membranes (full-fusion exocytosis). However, transient exocytic events were also observed, where the fusion-pore opens and closes, repetitively. Here we asked whether there are different discrete states of the open fusion-pore. Unitary exocytic events were recorded by the high-resolution cell-attached patch-clamp method in pituitary lactotrophs and brain astrocytes. We monitored reversible unitary exocytic events, characterized by an on-step, which is followed by an off-step in membrane capacitance (C_m), a parameter linearly related to the membrane area. The results revealed three categories of reversible exocytic events (transient fusion-pore openings), which do not end with the complete integration of the vesicle membrane into the plasma membrane. These were categorized according to the observed differences in the amplitude and sign of the change in the real (Re) parts of the admittance signals: in case I events (Re ≈ 0) fusion pores are relatively wide; in case II (Re > 0) and case III (Re < 0) events fusion pores are relatively narrow. We show that case III events are more likely to occur for small vesicles, whereas, case II events are more likely to occur for larger vesicles. Case III events were considerably more frequent in astrocytes than in lactotrophs.

v-SNAREs control exocytosis of vesicles from priming to fusion

SNARE proteins (soluble NSF-attachment protein receptors) are thought to be central components of the exocytotic mechanism in neurosecretory cells, but their precise function remained unclear. Here, we show that each of the vesicle-associated SNARE proteins (v-SNARE) of a chromaffin granule, synaptobrevin II or cellubrevin, is sufficient to support Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis and to establish a pool of primed, readily releasable vesicles. In the absence of both proteins, secretion is abolished, without affecting biogenesis or docking of granules indicating that v-SNAREs are absolutely required for granule exocytosis. We find that synaptobrevin II and cellubrevin differentially control the pool of readily releasable vesicles and show that the v-SNARE's amino terminus regulates the vesicle's primed state. We demonstrate that dynamics of fusion pore dilation are regulated by v-SNAREs, indicating their action throughout exocytosis from priming to fusion of vesicles.

Somatodendritic secretion in oxytocin neurons is upregulated during the female reproductive cycle

During the female reproductive cycle, hypothalamic oxytocin (OT) neurons undergo sharp changes in excitability. In lactating mammals, bursts of electrical activity of OT neurons result in the release of large amounts of OT in the bloodstream, which causes milk ejection. One hypothesis is that OT neurons regulate their own firing activity and that of nearby OT neurons by somatodendritic release of OT. In this study, we show that OT neuron activity strongly reduces inhibitory synaptic transmission to these neurons. This effect is blocked by antagonists of both adenosine and OT receptors and is mimicked by OT application. Inhibition of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor complex formation by tetanus toxin completely blocked the stimulation-induced reduction in inhibitory input, as did the calcium chelator BAPTA. During lactation, the readily releasable pool of secretory vesicles in OT cell bodies was doubled, and calcium currents were upregulated. This resulted in an increased inhibition of GABAergic synaptic transmission by somatodendritic release during lactation compared with the adult virgin stage. These results demonstrate that somatodendritic release is augmented during lactation, which is a novel form of plasticity to change the strength of synaptic transmission.

Tyrosine phosphorylation regulates rapid endocytosis in adrenal chromaffin cells

Secretion of neurotransmitter at the synapse and in secretory cells depends on the availability of vesicles for exocytosis. Rapid endocytosis is responsible for initiating local vesicle recycling and is essential during sustained neurotransmission. Although exocytosis is triggered by Ca(2+) influx and modulated by serine/threonine kinases, relatively little is known about the regulation of rapid endocytosis. Our data suggest that rapid endocytosis is controlled by tyrosine phosphorylation. Treatment of bovine adrenal chromaffin cells with tyrphostin 23, a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, dramatically slowed the time course of rapid endocytosis. In contrast, there was no effect on either the amount or rate of exocytosis. Application of orthovanadate, Zn(2+), or poly(Glu, Tyr) (4:1), each of which is a tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, reversed the effect of tyrphostin 23 on rapid endocytosis. Thus rapid endocytosis, like exocytosis, is subject to regulation by intracellular signaling pathways.

Ca(2+)-dependent activator protein for secretion is critical for the fusion of dense-core vesicles with the membrane in calf adrenal chromaffin cells

Calcium-dependent activator protein for secretion (CAPS) is a neural/endocrine cell-specific protein that has been shown to function at the Ca(2+)-dependent triggering step of dense-core vesicle (DCV) exocytosis in permeabilized PC12 cells. To evaluate the function of CAPS under physiological conditions, we introduced affinity-purified anti-CAPS IgGs into calf adrenal chromaffin (AC) cells via a patch pipette and tested the kinetics of catecholamine secretion using both amperometric and membrane capacitance techniques. The antibodies reacted with a single major approximately 145 kDa protein in AC cells based on immunoblot analysis. AC cells stimulated with sequential trains of action potentials at 7 Hz resulted in successive secretory episodes of equivalent magnitude. When either of two different anti-CAPS IgGs or their Fab fragments were present, a rapid and progressive inhibition of catecholamine release ensued to a maximum of >80%. The effect was specific because preabsorption of IgGs with the respective antigens ablated the inhibitory effect, and the IgGs had no effect on Ca currents. CAPS immunoneutralization not only reduced the number of amperometric spikes but markedly altered the kinetic characteristics of the residual events. The remaining spikes were much smaller (by 85%) and broader (by approximately 3.5-fold) than those in control cells, suggesting that CAPS plays a role in determining release of vesicle contents via the fusion pore. Anti-CAPS IgGs also slowed the rate of the initial exocytotic capacitance burst, representing the docked-and-primed vesicle pool, by approximately 90% but had no effect on the kinetics of rapid endocytosis. These results suggest that CAPS is a key component regulating the fusion of DCVs to the plasma membrane, and possibly fusion pore dilation, in catecholamine secretion from AC cells.