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Quincozes-Santos A, Bobermin LD, Costa NLF, Thomaz NK, Almeida RRDS, Beys-da-Silva WO, Santi L, Rosa RL, Capra D, Coelho-Aguiar JM, DosSantos MF, Heringer M, Cirne-Lima EO, Guimarães JA, Schuler-Faccini L, Gonçalves CA, Moura-Neto V, Souza DO. The role of glial cells in Zika virus-induced neurodegeneration. Glia 2023. [PMID: 36866453 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a strongly neurotropic flavivirus whose infection has been associated with microcephaly in neonates. However, clinical and experimental evidence indicate that ZIKV also affects the adult nervous system. In this regard, in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the ability of ZIKV to infect glial cells. In the central nervous system (CNS), glial cells are represented by astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) constitutes a highly heterogeneous group of cells (Schwann cells, satellite glial cells, and enteric glial cells) spread through the body. These cells are critical in both physiological and pathological conditions; as such, ZIKV-induced glial dysfunctions can be associated with the development and progression of neurological complications, including those related to the adult and aging brain. This review will address the effects of ZIKV infection on CNS and PNS glial cells, focusing on cellular and molecular mechanisms, including changes in the inflammatory response, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, Ca2+ and glutamate homeostasis, neural metabolism, and neuron-glia communication. Of note, preventive and therapeutic strategies that focus on glial cells may emerge to delay and/or prevent the development of ZIKV-induced neurodegeneration and its consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Quincozes-Santos
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Larissa Daniele Bobermin
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Naithan Ludian Fernandes Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Natalie K Thomaz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rômulo Rodrigo de Souza Almeida
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Lucélia Santi
- Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rafael L Rosa
- Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniela Capra
- Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Juliana M Coelho-Aguiar
- Laboratório de Morfogênese Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcos Fabio DosSantos
- Laboratório de Propriedades Mecânicas e Biologia Celular, Faculdade de Odontologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Manoela Heringer
- Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Carlos-Alberto Gonçalves
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Vivaldo Moura-Neto
- Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer, Secretaria Estadual de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Laboratório de Morfogênese Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Diogo Onofre Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Chu Y, Jia S, Xu K, Liu Q, Mai L, Liu J, Fan W, Huang F. Single-cell transcriptomic profile of satellite glial cells in trigeminal ganglion. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1117065. [PMID: 36818656 PMCID: PMC9932514 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1117065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Satellite glial cells (SGCs) play an important role in regulating the function of trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. Multiple mediators are involved in the bidirectional communication between SGCs and neurons in different physiological and pathological states. However, molecular insights into the transcript characteristics of SGCs are limited. Moreover, little is known about the heterogeneity of SGCs in TG, and a more in-depth understanding of the interactions between SGCs and neuron subtypes is needed. Here we show the single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) profile of SGCs in TG under physiological conditions. Our results demonstrate TG includes nine types of cell clusters, such as neurons, SGCs, myeloid Schwann cells (mSCs), non-myeloid Schwann cells (nmSCs), immune cells, etc., and the corresponding markers are also presented. We reveal the signature gene expression of SGCs, mSCs and nmSCs in the TG, and analyze the ligand-receptor pairs between neuron subtypes and SGCs in the TG. In the heterogeneity analysis of SGCs, four SGCs subtypes are identified, including subtypes enriched for genes associated with extracellular matrix organization, immediate early genes, interferon beta, and cell adhesion molecules, respectively. Our data suggest the molecular characteristics, heterogeneity of SGCs, and bidirectional interactions between SGCs and neurons, providing a valuable resource for studying SGCs in the TG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhao Chu
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shilin Jia
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ke Xu
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qing Liu
- Paediatric Dentistry and Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lijia Mai
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiawei Liu
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenguo Fan
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Wenguo Fan, ; Fang Huang,
| | - Fang Huang
- Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Guangzhou, China,Guanghua School of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Wenguo Fan, ; Fang Huang,
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Fekete CD, Nishiyama A. Presentation and integration of multiple signals that modulate oligodendrocyte lineage progression and myelination. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:1041853. [PMID: 36451655 PMCID: PMC9701731 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1041853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelination is critical for fast saltatory conduction of action potentials. Recent studies have revealed that myelin is not a static structure as previously considered but continues to be made and remodeled throughout adulthood in tune with the network requirement. Synthesis of new myelin requires turning on the switch in oligodendrocytes (OL) to initiate the myelination program that includes synthesis and transport of macromolecules needed for myelin production as well as the metabolic and other cellular functions needed to support this process. A significant amount of information is available regarding the individual intrinsic and extrinsic signals that promote OL commitment, expansion, terminal differentiation, and myelination. However, it is less clear how these signals are made available to OL lineage cells when needed, and how multiple signals are integrated to generate the correct amount of myelin that is needed in a given neural network state. Here we review the pleiotropic effects of some of the extracellular signals that affect myelination and discuss the cellular processes used by the source cells that contribute to the variation in the temporal and spatial availability of the signals, and how the recipient OL lineage cells might integrate the multiple signals presented to them in a manner dialed to the strength of the input.
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Abstract
Inflammatory responses, including glial cell activation and peripheral immune cell infiltration, are involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). These inflammatory responses appear to be closely related to the release of extracellular vesicles, such as exosomes. However, the relationships among different forms of glial cell activation, synuclein dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and exosomes are complicated. This review discusses the multiple roles played by exosomes in PD-associated inflammation and concludes that exosomes can transport toxic α-synuclein oligomers to immature neurons and into the extracellular environment, inducing the oligomerization of α-synuclein in normal neurons. Misfolded α-synuclein causes microglia and astrocytes to activate and secrete exosomes. Glial cell-derived exosomes participate in communications between glial cells and neurons, triggering anti-stress and anti-inflammatory responses, in addition to axon growth. The production and release of mitochondrial vesicles and exosomes establish a new mechanism for linking mitochondrial dysfunction to systemic inflammation associated with PD. Given the relevance of exosomes as mediators of neuron-glia communication in neuroinflammation and neuropathogenesis, new targeted treatment strategies are currently being developed that use these types of extracellular vesicles as drug carriers. Exosome-mediated inflammation may be a promising target for intervention in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Lu Li
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Hong-Yan Huang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Hui Ren
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Xing-Long Yang
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China
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Avraham O, Deng PY, Maschi D, Klyachko VA, Cavalli V. Disrupted Association of Sensory Neurons With Enveloping Satellite Glial Cells in Fragile X Mouse Model. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 14:796070. [PMID: 35058748 PMCID: PMC8763968 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.796070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Among most prevalent deficits in individuals with Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is hypersensitivity to sensory stimuli and somatosensory alterations. Whether dysfunction in peripheral sensory system contributes to these deficits remains poorly understood. Satellite glial cells (SGCs), which envelop sensory neuron soma, play critical roles in regulating neuronal function and excitability. The potential contributions of SGCs to sensory deficits in FXS remain unexplored. Here we found major structural defects in sensory neuron-SGC association in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), manifested by aberrant covering of the neuron and gaps between SGCs and the neuron along their contact surface. Single-cell RNAseq analyses demonstrated transcriptional changes in both neurons and SGCs, indicative of defects in neuronal maturation and altered SGC vesicular secretion. We validated these changes using fluorescence microscopy, qPCR, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in combination with computational analyses using deep learning networks. These results revealed a disrupted neuron-glia association at the structural and functional levels. Given the well-established role for SGCs in regulating sensory neuron function, altered neuron-glia association may contribute to sensory deficits in FXS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oshri Avraham
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Pan-Yue Deng
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Dario Maschi
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Vitaly A. Klyachko
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Valeria Cavalli
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Center of Regenerative Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
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Hoye ML, Regan MR, Jensen LA, Lake AM, Reddy LV, Vidensky S, Richard JP, Maragakis NJ, Rothstein JD, Dougherty JD, Miller TM. Motor neuron-derived microRNAs cause astrocyte dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Brain 2018; 141:2561-2575. [PMID: 30007309 PMCID: PMC6113638 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Revised: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that microRNA-218 (miR-218) is greatly enriched in motor neurons and is released extracellularly in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model rats. To determine if the released, motor neuron-derived miR-218 may have a functional role in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, we examined the effect of miR-218 on neighbouring astrocytes. Surprisingly, we found that extracellular, motor neuron-derived miR-218 can be taken up by astrocytes and is sufficient to downregulate an important glutamate transporter in astrocytes [excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2)]. The effect of miR-218 on astrocytes extends beyond EAAT2 since miR-218 binding sites are enriched in mRNAs translationally downregulated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis astrocytes. Inhibiting miR-218 with antisense oligonucleotides in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model mice mitigates the loss of EAAT2 and other miR-218-mediated changes, providing an important in vivo demonstration of the relevance of microRNA-mediated communication between neurons and astrocytes. These data define a novel mechanism in neurodegeneration whereby microRNAs derived from dying neurons can directly modify the glial phenotype and cause astrocyte dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariah L Hoye
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Melissa R Regan
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Leah A Jensen
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Allison M Lake
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Linga V Reddy
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Svetlana Vidensky
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jean-Philippe Richard
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nicholas J Maragakis
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Rothstein
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joseph D Dougherty
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Timothy M Miller
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine; St. Louis, MO, USA
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Valente T, Serratosa J, Perpiñá U, Saura J, Solà C. Alterations in CD200-CD200R1 System during EAE Already Manifest at Presymptomatic Stages. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:129. [PMID: 28522962 PMCID: PMC5415594 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the brain of patients with multiple sclerosis, activated microglia/macrophages appear in active lesions and in normal appearing white matter. However, whether they play a beneficial or a detrimental role in the development of the pathology remains a controversial issue. The production of pro-inflammatory molecules by chronically activated microglial cells is suggested to contribute to the progression of neurodegenerative processes in neurological disease. In the healthy brain, neurons control glial activation through several inhibitory mechanisms, such as the CD200-CD200R1 interaction. Therefore, we studied whether alterations in the CD200-CD200R1 system might underlie the neuroinflammation in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of multiple sclerosis. We determined the time course of CD200 and CD200R1 expression in the brain and spinal cord of an EAE mouse model from presymptomatic to late symptomatic stages. We also assessed the correlation with associated glial activation, inflammatory response and EAE severity. Alterations in CD200 and CD200R1 expression were mainly observed in spinal cord regions in the EAE model, mostly a decrease in CD200 and an increase in CD200R1 expression. A decrease in the expression of the mRNA encoding a full CD200 protein was detected before the onset of clinical signs, and remained thereafter. A decrease in CD200 protein expression was observed from the onset of clinical signs. By contrast, CD200R1 expression increased at EAE onset, when a glial reaction associated with the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory markers occurred, and continued to be elevated during the pathology. Moreover, the magnitude of the alterations correlated with severity of the EAE mainly in spinal cord. These results suggest that neuronal-microglial communication through CD200-CD200R1 interaction is compromised in EAE. The early decreases in CD200 expression in EAE suggest that this downregulation might also occur in the initial phases of multiple sclerosis, and that this early neuronal dysfunction might facilitate the development of neuroinflammation. The increased CD200R1 expression in the EAE model highlights the potential use of targeted agonist molecules as therapeutic tools to control neuroinflammation. In summary, the CD200-CD200R1 system is a potential therapeutic target in multiple sclerosis, and CD200R1 agonists are molecules that may be worth developing in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Valente
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Serratosa
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)Barcelona, Spain
| | - Unai Perpiñá
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Saura
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), University of BarcelonaBarcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Solà
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut D'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)Barcelona, Spain
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Scheller
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Saarland Homburg, Germany
| | - Frank Kirchhoff
- Molecular Physiology, Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine, University of Saarland Homburg, Germany
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Abstract
Cajal is widely recognized by the scientific community for his important contributions to our knowledge of the neuronal organization of the nervous system. His studies on neuroglial cells are less recognized, yet they are no less relevant to our current understanding of the cellular bases of brain structure. Two pioneering studies published a century ago –“Something about the physiological significance of neuroglia” (Ramón y Cajal, 1897) and “A contribution to the understanding of neuroglia in the human brain” (Ramón y Cajal, 1913)—focused on glial cells and their role in brain physiology. Novel findings obtained using state-of-the-art and sophisticated technologies largely confirm many of the groundbreaking hypotheses proposed by Cajal related to the structural-functional properties of neuroglia. Here we propose to the reader a journey guided by the ideas of Cajal through the recent findings on the functional significance of astrocytes, the most abundant neuroglial cell type in the nervous system. Astrocyte–neuron interaction, which represents an emerging field in current neuroscience with important implications for our understanding of the cellular processes underlying brain function, has its roots in many of the original concepts proposed by Cajal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Navarrete
- Functional and Systems Neurobiology, Instituto Cajal, CSIC Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfonso Araque
- Functional and Systems Neurobiology, Instituto Cajal, CSIC Madrid, Spain ; Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA
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