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Wang X, Du R, Geng L, Zhou H, Ji J. Performance Evaluation of a Cicada-Inspired Subsoiling Tool Using DEM Simulations. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:25. [PMID: 38248599 PMCID: PMC10813370 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Subsoiling practice is an essential tillage practice in modern agriculture. Tillage forces and energy consumption during subsoiling are extremely high, which reduces the economic benefits of subsoiling technology. In this paper, a cicada-inspired biomimetic subsoiling tool (CIST) was designed to reduce the draught force during subsoiling. A soil-tool interaction model was developed using EDEM and validated using lab soil bin tests with sandy loam soil. The validated model was used to optimize the CIST and evaluate its performance by comparing it with a conventional chisel subsoiling tool (CCST) at various working depths (250-350 mm) and speeds (0.5-2.5 ms-1). Results showed that both simulated draught force and soil disturbance behaviors agreed well with those from lab soil bin tests, as indicated by relative errors of <6.1%. Compared with the CCST, the draught forces of the CIST can be reduced by 17.7% at various working depths and speeds; the design of the CIST obviously outperforms some previous biomimetic designs with largest draught force reduction of 7.29-12.8%. Soil surface flatness after subsoiling using the CIST was smoother at various depths than using the CCST. Soil loosening efficiencies of the CIST can be raised by 17.37% at various working speeds. Results from this study implied that the developed cicada-inspired subsoiling tool outperforms the conventional chisel subsoiling tool on aspects of soil disturbance behaviors, draught forces, and soil loosening efficiencies. This study can have implications for designing high-performance subsoiling tools with reduced draught forces and energy requirements, especially for the subsoiling tools working under sandy loam soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuezhen Wang
- College of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China; (X.W.)
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Machinery Equipment Advanced Manufacturing of Henan Province, Luoyang 471000, China
| | - Ruizhi Du
- College of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China; (X.W.)
| | - Lingxin Geng
- College of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China; (X.W.)
| | - Hanmi Zhou
- College of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China; (X.W.)
| | - Jiangtao Ji
- College of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, China; (X.W.)
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Machinery Equipment Advanced Manufacturing of Henan Province, Luoyang 471000, China
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Azevedo RP, Corinto LM, Peixoto DS, De Figueiredo T, Silveira GCD, Peche PM, Pio LAS, Pagliari PH, Curi N, Silva BM. Deep Tillage Strategies in Perennial Crop Installation: Structural Changes in Contrasting Soil Classes. Plants (Basel) 2022; 11:2255. [PMID: 36079634 PMCID: PMC9460178 DOI: 10.3390/plants11172255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Tillage modifies soil structure, which can be demonstrated by changes in the soil’s physical properties, such as penetration resistance (PR) and soil electrical resistivity (ρ). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of deep tillage strategies on three morphogenetically contrasting soil classes in the establishment of perennial crops regarding geophysical and physical-hydric properties. The experiment was conducted in the state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. The tillage practices were evaluated in Typic Dystrustept, Rhodic Hapludult, and Rhodic Hapludox soil classes, and are described as follows: MT—plant hole; CT—furrow; SB—subsoiler; DT—rotary hoe tiller; and DT + calcium (Ca) (additional liming). Analyses of PR and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were performed during the growing season and measurements were measured in plant rows of each experimental plot. Undisturbed soil samples were collected for analysis of soil bulk density (Bd) at three soil depths (0−0.20, 0.20−0.40, and 0.40−0.60 m) with morphological evaluation of soil structure (VESS). Tukey’s test (p < 0.05) for Bd and VESS and Pearson linear correlation analysis between Bd, ρ, and PR were performed. Soil class and its intrinsic attributes have an influence on the effect of tillage. The greatest effect on soil structure occurred in the treatments DT and DT + Ca that mixed the soil to a depth of 0.60 m. The ρ showed a positive correlation with Bd and with PR, highlighting that ERT may detect changes caused by cultivation practices, although ERT lacks the accuracy of PR. The soil response to different tillage systems and their effects on soil structure were found to be dependent on the soil class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Passaglia Azevedo
- Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Lara Mota Corinto
- Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Devison Souza Peixoto
- Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Tomás De Figueiredo
- Mountain Research Center (CIMO), Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (ESA/IPB), Santa Apolonia Campus, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Gustavo Cesar Dias Silveira
- Department of Agriculture, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Pedro Maranha Peche
- Department of Agriculture, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Leila Aparecida Salles Pio
- Department of Agriculture, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Paulo Humberto Pagliari
- Southwest Research and Outreach Center, Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, 23669 130th St., Lamberton, MN 56152, USA
| | - Nilton Curi
- Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Bruno Montoani Silva
- Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Lavras, Av. Doutor Sylvio Menicucci 1001, Lavras CEP 37200-900, MG, Brazil
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Yang Y, Li M, Wu J, Pan X, Gao C, Tang DWS. Impact of Combining Long-Term Subsoiling and Organic Fertilizer on Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon and Nitrogen, Soil Enzyme Activity, and Water Use of Winter Wheat. Front Plant Sci 2021; 12:788651. [PMID: 35211130 PMCID: PMC8861283 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.788651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Reductions in soil productivity and soil water retention capacity, and water scarcity during crop growth, may occur due to long-term suboptimal tillage and fertilization practices. Therefore, the application of appropriate tillage (subsoiling) and fertilization (organic fertilizer) practices is important for improving soil structure, water conservation and soil productivity. We hypothesize that subsoiling tillage combined with organic fertilizer has a better effect than subsoiling or organic fertilizer alone. A field experiment in Henan, China, has been conducted since 2011 to explore the effects of subsoiling and organic fertilizer, in combination, on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) farming. We studied the effects of conventional tillage (CT), subsoiling (S), organic fertilizer (OF), and organic fertilizer combined with subsoiling (S+OF) treatments on dry matter accumulation (DM), water consumption (ET), water use efficiency (WUE) at different growth stages, yield, and water production efficiency (WPE) of winter wheat over 3 years (2016-2017, 2017-2018, 2018-2019). We also analyzed the soil structure, soil organic carbon, soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, and soil enzymes in 2019. The results indicate that compared with CT, the S, OF and S+OF treatments increased the proportion of >0.25 mm aggregates, and S+OF especially led to increased soil organic carbon, soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, soil enzyme activity (sucrase, cellulose, and urease). S+OF treatment was most effective in reducing ET, and increasing DM and WUE during the entire growth period of wheat. S+OF treatment also increased the total dry matter accumulation (Total DM) and total water use efficiency (total WUE) by 18.6-32.0% and 36.6-42.7%, respectively, during these 3 years. Wheat yield and WPE under S+OF treatment increased by 11.6-28.6% and 26.8-43.6%, respectively, in these 3 years. Therefore, S+OF in combination was found to be superior to S or OF alone, which in turn yielded better results than the CT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghui Yang
- Institute of Plant Nutrition and Resource Environment, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Yuanyang Experimental Station of Crop Water Use, Ministry of Agriculture, Yuanyang, China
- Field Scientific Observation and Research Station of Water Saving Agriculture in the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Yuanyang, China
- *Correspondence: Yonghui Yang,
| | - Minjie Li
- Institute of Plant Nutrition and Resource Environment, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Yuanyang Experimental Station of Crop Water Use, Ministry of Agriculture, Yuanyang, China
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jicheng Wu
- Institute of Plant Nutrition and Resource Environment, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Yuanyang Experimental Station of Crop Water Use, Ministry of Agriculture, Yuanyang, China
- Field Scientific Observation and Research Station of Water Saving Agriculture in the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Yuanyang, China
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiaoying Pan
- Institute of Plant Nutrition and Resource Environment, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Yuanyang Experimental Station of Crop Water Use, Ministry of Agriculture, Yuanyang, China
- Field Scientific Observation and Research Station of Water Saving Agriculture in the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Yuanyang, China
| | - Cuimin Gao
- Institute of Plant Nutrition and Resource Environment, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China
- Yuanyang Experimental Station of Crop Water Use, Ministry of Agriculture, Yuanyang, China
- Field Scientific Observation and Research Station of Water Saving Agriculture in the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Yuanyang, China
| | - Darrell W. S. Tang
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Luo J, Lin ZL, Que YX, Li SY, Yao KC, Jiang Y, Zhang H, Chen JF. [Effect of subsoiling depths on soil physical characters and sugarcane yield]. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 2019; 30:405-412. [PMID: 30915790 DOI: 10.13287/j.1001-9332.201902.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the physical properties of the plough soil and the components of sugarcane yield in the depth of mechanized subsoiling of sugarcane field, along with the clarification on the specific soil location and obstacle factors of subsoiling, with the aim to provide scientific basis for the construction of a good sugarcane cultivation layer and the development of soil improvement strategies. Three depths of subsoiling operation (35, 40 and 45 cm) were set up, with nosubsoiling as control. Soil physical properties, including compactness, bulk density, water content, porosity, three-phase volume ratio, and yield components and cane yield of sugarcane in the fields were investigated. The results showed that subsoiling depth was significantly correlated with the soil structure characteristics and the improvement of sugarcane yield in sugarcane field. Subsoiling broke down the plow bottom, significantly reduced soil compaction, bulk density, and the corresponding penetration resistance and shear strength during mechanical operation, especially for the above factors in 20-30 cm soil layer, with positive consequences for sugarcane yield. Moreover, subsoiling significantly increased the liquid volume rate of the soil layer within 30 cm and soil moisture storage capacity, and thus significantly improved the water index of the 10-30 cm soil layer. The 10-30 cm soil layer was the location for the most significant effect of subsoiling on the improvement of solid volume rate in the plough soil. The effective stem number, plant height, cane yield and sucrose content of sugarcane were significantly promoted by subsoiling. In view of the common equipment level in the sugarcane planting area, we suggested that the operating depth standard of mechanized subsoiling should not be less than 40 cm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Luo
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Zhao Li Lin
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - You Xiong Que
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Shi Yan Li
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Kun Cun Yao
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yong Jiang
- College of Computer and Information Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biology and Genetic Breeding, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jian Feng Chen
- Lituo Agricultural Services Co. Ltd, Laibin 546100, Guangxi, China
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Wen MJ, Wang CB, Huo L, Jiang WL, Yang SC. [Effects of subsoiling and straw returning on soil physical properties and maize production in Yellow River irrigation area of Gansu, China]. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 2019; 30:224-232. [PMID: 30907544 DOI: 10.13287/j.1001-9332.201901.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted to examine the effects of subsoiling 35 cm with maize straw returning, subsoiling 35 cm without maize straw returning, and rotary tillage without maize straw returning on soil compaction, soil bulk density, soil infiltration, soil water content in 0-100 cm depth, nutrients uptake and production of maize on sierozem in the Gansu Yellow River irrigated area in 2015-2017. Compared with subsoiling 35 cm without maize straw returning and rotary tillage without maize straw returning, subsoiling 35 cm with maize straw returning significantly decreased the soil compaction and soil density in 0-40 cm depth. Compared with that in 2015 (before experiment), soil compaction and soil bulk density in subsoiling 35 cm with straw returning was decreased by 42.6% and 7.0%, respectively, after harvest in 2017. Compared with other treatments, subsoiling 35 cm with straw returning had the lowest variation of soil compaction (6.1%) and soil bulk density (3.2%) in 0-40 cm depth before sowing and after harvest in 2016 and 2017. The soil infiltration rate in subsoiling 35 cm with straw returning was significantly improved by 33.6% compared with rotary tillage without maize straw returning. Subsoiling 35 cm with straw retention could significantly increase soil water content and decrease water variation in 0-100 cm soil depth in spring (before maize sowing) and autumn (after maize harvest). Compared with rotary tillage without maize straw returning, water storage in subsoiling 35 cm with straw retention was increased by 15.5% and 5.6% in spring and autumn, respectively. The water use efficiency was enhanced by 32.4%. Furthermore, subsoiling 35 cm with straw retention could increase maize economic yield and biomass yield by 25.6% and 33.3%, compared with rotary tillage without straw retention. Subsoilng and straw retention could promote nutrient absorption, with N, P2O5 and K2O uptake increased by 49.6%, 51.5% and 37.6%, compared with rotary tillage. Overall, our results suggested that subsoiling 35 cm straw retention could improve soil characteristics, stabilize the phy-sical properties of the plough layer, increase soil water content in the 0-100 cm soil layer, and reduce water variation in spring and autumn. Consequently, it was the best management to promote the water and nutrient utilization of maize and achieve high yield. Our findings could provide theoretical basis for further research on the construction technology of the plough layer in Gansu irrigation area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Juan Wen
- Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Observing and Experiment Station of Agro-Environment and Arable Land Conservation in Gansu, Institute of Soil Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Cheng Bao Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Observing and Experiment Station of Agro-Environment and Arable Land Conservation in Gansu, Institute of Soil Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Lin Huo
- Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Observing and Experiment Station of Agro-Environment and Arable Land Conservation in Gansu, Institute of Soil Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Wan Li Jiang
- Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Observing and Experiment Station of Agro-Environment and Arable Land Conservation in Gansu, Institute of Soil Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Si Cun Yang
- Ministry of Agriculture Scientific Observing and Experiment Station of Agro-Environment and Arable Land Conservation in Gansu, Institute of Soil Fertilizer and Water-saving Agriculture, Gansu Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Lanzhou 730070, China
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Zhang MZ, Niu WQ, Xu J, Li Y. [Influences of micro-irrigation and subsoiling before planting on enzyme activity in soil rhizosphere and summer maize yield.]. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 2016; 27:1925-1934. [PMID: 29737701 DOI: 10.13287/j.1001-9332.201606.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In order to explore the influences of micro-irrigation and subsoiling before planting on enzyme activity in soil rhizosphere and summer maize yield, an orthogonal experiment was carried out with three factors of micro-irrigation method, irrigation depth, and subsoiling depth. The factor of irrigation method included surface drip irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation, and moistube-irrigation; three levels of irrigation depth were obtained by controlling the lower limit of soil water content to 50%, 65%, and 80% of field holding capacity, respectively; and three depths of deep subsoiling were 20, 40, and 60 cm. The results showed that the activities of catalase and urease increased first and then decreased, while the activity of phosphatase followed an opposite trend in the growth season of summer maize. Compared with surface drip irrigation and moistube-irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation increased the average soil moisture of 0-80 cm layer by 6.3% and 1.8% in the growth season, respectively. Subsurface drip irrigation could significantly increase soil urease activity, roots volume, and yield of summer maize. With the increase of irrigation level, soil phosphatase activity decreased first and then increased, while urease activity and yield increased first and then decreased. The average soil moisture and root volume all increased in the growth season of summer maize. The increments of yield and root volume from subsoiling of 40 to 20 cm were greater than those from 60 to 40 cm. The highest enzyme activity was obtained with the treatment of subsoiling of 40 cm. In terms of improving water resource use efficiency, nitrogen use efficiency, and crop yield, the best management strategy of summer maize was the combination of subsurface drip irrigation, controlling the lower limit of soil water content to 65% of field holding capacity, and 40 cm subsoiling before planting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Zhi Zhang
- College of Water Resource and Architectural Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yang-ling 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Water Saving Agriculture in Arid Regions of China, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wen Quan Niu
- College of Water Resource and Architectural Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yang-ling 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Water Saving Agriculture in Arid Regions of China, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jian Xu
- Institute of Water Saving Agriculture in Arid Regions of China, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Institute of Water Saving Agriculture in Arid Regions of China, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
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Rich JR, Hodge C, Robertson WK. Distribution of field corn roots and parasitic nematodes in subsoiled and nonsubsoiled soil. J Nematol 1986; 18:203-207. [PMID: 19294167 PMCID: PMC2618515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A field trial was conducted for 2 years in an Arredondo fine sand containing a tillage pan at 15-20 cm deep to determine the influence of subsoiling on the distribution of corn roots and plant-parasitic nematodes. Soil samples were taken at various depths and row positions at 30, 60, and 90 days after planting in field corn subsoiled under the row with two chisels and in non-subsoiled corn. At 30 and 60 days, in-row nematode population densities to 60 cm deep were not affected by subsoiling compared with population densities in nonsubsoiled plots. After 90 days, subsoiling had not affected total root length or root weight at the 20 depth-row position sampling combinations, but population densities of Meloidogyne incognita and Criconemella spp. had increased in subsoiled corn. Numbers of Pratylenchus zeae were not affected. Subsoiling generally resulted in a change in distribution of corn roots and nematodes in the soil profile but caused little total increase in either roots or numbers of nematodes. Corn yield was increased by subsoiling.
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Bernard EC, Hussey RS. Movement and Persistence of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane in a Soil with a Plow-pan. J Nematol 1978; 10:217-224. [PMID: 19305844 PMCID: PMC2617892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Movement and persistence of 1,2-dibrotno-3-chloropropane (DBCP) in a Coastal Plain soil containing a sandy plow-pan were enhanced in each of 2 years by subsoiling, increased depth of application, and increased rate of application. DBCP was extracted from the soil with hexane and analyzed by gas chromatography. Subsoiling at a 35-cm depth gave the greatest increase in lateral movement and downward penetration of DBCP in 1975 (a wet year), but bad less effect in 1976 (a dry year). An increased application rate (10 kg/ha vs. 13.5) improved coverage moderately in 1975 by increasing lateral movement, but had little effect in 1976. Increased application depth (18 vs. 35 cm) improved coverage in both years though more in 1976. Deep placement extended DBCP retention time. Rainfall in 1975 probably decreased the number and size of air-filled pores, slowing loss of DBCP to the atmosphere. Because of reduced porosity, the plow-pan was impervious to the passage of DBCP unless disrupted by subsoiling.
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