Caesalpinia bonducella Counteracts Paracetamol-Instigated Hepatic Toxicity via Modulating TNF-α and IL-6/10 Expression and Bcl-2 and Caspase-8/3 Signalling

Paracetamol is the most predominantly used antipyretic and analgesic drug. As paracetamol is metabolised mostly in the liver, both deliberate and unintentional overdoses of paracetamol are reported to provoke severe hepatotoxicity, including liver failure. Caesalpinia bonducella seed is well known for its medicinal and therapeutic properties. However, there is no report on its potential protective effects against paracetamol-instigated hepatotoxicity. Therefore, we studied the protective effects of aqueous seed extract of Caesalpinia bonducella (ASECB) on paracetamol-instigated hepatotoxicity in rats. Thirty female albino rats were divided into five groups: control, paracetamol-intoxicated, ASECB + paracetamol, silymarin + paracetamol, and ASECB alone. The rats were assessed for liver enzyme markers (alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase), antioxidant activity (superoxide dismutase, catalase, reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase), lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde), histopathological, cytokine levels (pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6, and anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10), and protein expression (pro-apoptotic markers caspase 3 and caspase 8 and anti-apoptotic marker Bcl-2) after the 8-day study period. Repercussions of paracetamol intoxication induced upregulation of liver enzyme markers, antioxidant depletion, malondialdehyde production, decreased expression of Bcl-2 and IL-10, and overexpression of apoptotic and pro-inflammatory mediators, which were attenuated by pre-treatment with ASECB. ASECB markedly mitigated paracetamol-instigated liver injury by suppressing caspase-8/3 signalling and inflammatory infiltration in liver tissue by significantly reducing TNF-α and IL-6. In conclusion, ASECB pre-treatment exerts potent liver protection against paracetamol-instigated hepatotoxicity evidenced by mitigation of oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Ethanolic extract of Caesalpinia bonduc seeds triggers yeast metacaspase-dependent apoptotic pathway mediated by mitochondrial dysfunction through enhanced production of calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a widespread disease-causing yeast affecting humankind, which leads to urinary tract, cutaneous and various lethal systemic infections. As this infection rate steadily increases, it is becoming a significant public health problem. Recently, Caesalpinia bonduc has received much attention from researchers due to its diverse pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial effects. Accordingly, we first planned to explore the in-vitro anticandidal potential of three extracts obtained from C. bonduc seeds against four Candida species. Initially, the anticandidal activity of the seed extracts was checked by the microdilution technique. Out of three seed extracts tested, ethanolic extract of C. bonduc seed (EECS) recorded the best activity against C. albicans. Hence, we next aimed to find out the anticandidal mechanism of EECS in C. albicans. The liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) analysis showed that the major compounds present in the EECS were tocopherols, fucosterol, linoleic acid, β-amyrin, β-sitosterol, campesterol, cassane furanoditerpene, Norcassane furanoditerpene and other diterpenes. To evaluate the cell death mechanism in C. albicans, a series of parameters related to apoptosis, viz., reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, membrane permeability, mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome c, DNA fragmentation, nuclear condensation, increased Ca²⁺ level in cytosolic and mitochondrial and activation of metacaspase, were analyzed. The results showed that EECS treatment resulted in the elevation of ROS, which leads to plasma membrane permeability in C. albicans. Annexin V staining further confirms the early stage of apoptosis through phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization. We further inspected the late apoptotic stage using DAPI and TUNEL staining assays. From the results, it can be concluded that EECS triggered mitochondrial dysfunction by releasing high levels of ROS, cytochrome c and Ca²⁺resulting in the activation of metacaspase mediated apoptosis, which is the central mechanism behind the cell death of C. albicans. Finally, a Galleria mellonella-C. albicans infection system was employed to assess the in-vivo potential of EECS. The outcomes displayed that the EECS considerably enhanced the recovery rate of G. mellonella larvae from infection after the treatment. Additionally, EECS also recorded low hemolytic activity. This study thus spotlights the anticandidal potential and mechanism of action of EECS against C. albicans and thus delivers a promising treatment approach to manage C. albicans infection in the future.

Genetic and phytochemical investigations for understanding population variability of the medicinally important tree Saraca asoca to help develop conservation strategies

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde (Caesalpiniaceae) is a highly traded IUCN red listed tree species used in Ayurvedic medicines for the treatment of various disorders, especially gynaecological problems. However, information about the genetic variations between populations and corresponding variation in specialized metabolites of S. asoca remains unclear. To address this issue, we analysed 11 populations of S. asoca with 106 accessions collected from Western Ghats of India using ISSR markers along with selected phytocompounds using RP-HPLC. Twenty primers were screened, out of which seven were selected for further analysis based on generation of clear polymorphic banding patterns. These seven ISSR primers produced 74 polymorphic loci. AMOVA showed 43% genetic variation within populations and 57% among the populations of S. asoca. To estimate the genetic relationships among S. asoca populations, UPGMA and Bayesian Models were constructed, which revealed two clusters of similar grouping patterns. However, excluding minor deviations, UPGMA and dissimilarity analysis showed close association of genotypes according to their geographical locations. Catechin (CAT), epicatechin (EPI) and gallic acid (GA) were quantified from bark and leaf samples of corresponding genotypes collected from 106 accessions. ROC plots depicted the sensitivity and specificity of the concentrations of tested phytocompounds at various cut-off points. Although, multiple logistic regression analysis predicted some association between few loci with GA, EPI and CAT, but PCA for phytochemical data failed to distinguish the populations. Overall, there were no significant trends observed to distinguish the populations based on these phytocompounds. Furthermore, the study advocates the delineate provenance regions of S. asoca genotypes/chemotype snapshots for in-situ conservation and ex-situ cultivation.

Hydroxylated furanoditerpenoids from pupal cases produced by the bruchid beetle Sulcobruchus sauteri inside the seeds of Caesalpinia decapetala

Seven undescribed hydroxylated cassane-type furanoditerpenoids were isolated from pupal cases formed from the secretion/excretion of the larvae of the wild bruchid seed beetle Sulcobruchus sauteri in infested Caesalpinia decapetala seeds, and their structures were elucidated by interpreting their spectra. The hydroxylated furanoditerpenoids found in the pupal cases were not present in the seeds of the host plant. Caesalacetal and caesaljapin obtained from the intact seeds exhibited larvicidal activity against the larvae of Aedes albopictus, while the hydroxylated furanoditerpenoids isolated from the pupal cases were inactive. The larvae of S. sauteri are proposed to detoxify larvicidal diterpenoids that occur in the seeds of the host plant by regiospecific hydroxylation.

A protocol for axenic liquid cell cultures of a woody leguminous mangrove, Caesalpinia crista, and their amino acids profiling

Callus induction, maintenance and protoplast cultures were achieved from immature seeds of a woody leguminous mangrove, Caesalpinia crista. Axenic cultures were possible during 1.5 months of pod storage in 0.1% benzalkonium chloride solution. Callus induction was achieved using 1 mL liquid medium in a 10 mL flat-bottomed culture tube. Protoplasts were isolated using Cellulase R10, Hemicellulase, and Driselase 20 in 0.6 M mannitol solution and sub-culturable calluses were obtained in 50 μL liquid medium using a 96-microplate method. The optimal hormonal concentration was 10 μM each of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and benzyladenine in liquid Murashige and Skoog's basal medium for both callus induction and maintenance, and protoplast cultures. Similarities and differences in amino acid profiles and culture conditions are discussed among woody mangrove species and non-mangrove leguminous species. Caesalpinia crista cultures were unique as they secreted a large amount of amino acids, including proline, into the liquid culture medium.

Two new phenolic compounds from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L

Two new phenolic compounds, epicaesalpin J and 7,10,11-trihydroxydracaenone, were isolated from the heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. Their structures were identified by spectroscopic analysis methods, such as 1D and 2D NMR, along with the high resolution mass spectral data. The NO inhibition activities of two new compounds and six known compounds were tested.

Pyridine metabolism and trigonelline synthesis in leaves of the mangrove legume trees Derris indica (Millettia pinnata) and Caesalpinia crista

The aim of this study was to reveal the pyridine metabolism in leaves of two mangrove legumes, Derris indica (= Millettia pinnata or Pongamia pinnata) and Caesalpinia crista. Radioactivity from [carbonyl-14C]nicotinamide supplied exogenously to young leaf disks was recovered in nicotinic acid, nicotinic acid mononucleotide, NAD, NADP, nicotinamide mononucleotide and trigonelline. These mangrove species, especially D. indica, have strong ability to convert nicotinamide to trigonelline, but not to nicotinic acid glucoside. The endogenous trigonelline content in leaves of D. indica was more than 830 microg/g dry weight. This value is 5-12 times greater than that in leaves of Glycine max. There was little short-term effect of 250 and 500 mM NaCl (equivalent to ca. 50% and 100% sea water) on nicotinamide metabolism.

Using the pER8:GUS reporter system to screen for phytoestrogens from Caesalpinia sappan

Arabidopsis thaliana pER8:GUS, a low-cost, highly efficient, and convenient transgenic plant system, was used to assay the estrogen-like activity of 30 traditional Chinese medicines. The MeOH extract of Caesalpinia sappan exhibited significant bioactivity in this assay, and subsequent bioactivity-guided fractionation of the extract led to the isolation of one new compound, (S)-3,7-dihydroxychroman-4-one (1), and 10 known compounds. Both the plant pER8:GUS and in vitro estrogen response element reporter assays were used to evaluate the estrogenic activity of the isolated compounds, and these two systems produced comparable results. Compounds 6, 8, and 11 showed significant estrogenic activity comparable to genistein. These active compounds were determined to be nontoxic new sources of phytoestrogens. In addition, compounds 2 and 3 inhibited ERE transcription induced by 17β-estradiol. A docking model revealed that compounds 6, 8, and 11 showed high affinity to the estrogen receptor. The pER8:GUS reporter system was demonstrated to be a useful and effective technique in phytoestrogen discovery.

Leaf antioxidant fluctuations and growth responses in saplings of Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (brazilwood) under an urban stressing environment

We intended to establish how efficient the leaf antioxidant responses of C. echinata are against oxidative environmental conditions observed in an urban environment and their relations to growth and biomass parameters. Plants were grown for 15 months in four sites: Congonhas and Pinheiros, affected by pollutants from vehicular emissions; Ibirapuera, affected by high O(3) concentrations; and a greenhouse with filtered air. Fifteen plants were quarterly removed from each site for analysis of antioxidants, growth and biomass. Plants growing in polluted sites showed alterations in their antioxidants. They were shorter, had thicker stems and produced less leaf biomass than plants maintained under filtered air. The fluctuations in the levels of antioxidants were significantly influenced by combined effects of climatic and pollution variables. The higher were the antioxidant responses and the concentrations of pollutant markers of air contamination in each site the slower were the growth and biomass production.

Cassane Diterpene-lactones from the Seed ofCaesalpinia minaxHance

Five new neocaesalpins, named neocaesalpin J-N (1-5, resp.), along with the known neocaesalpin A and eight known furanditerpenoids, namely epsilon-caesalpin, 7-acetoxy-epsilon-caesalpin, 14-deoxy-epsilon-caesalpin, caesalmins D-F, and bonducellins C and D, were isolated from the seeds of Caesalpinia minax HANCE. Their structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic analyses.

Identification of RAPD markers, in situ DNA content and structural chromosomal diversity in some legumes of the mangrove flora of Orissa

Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers, karyotypes and 4C DNA content were analyzed in five legume mangroves belonging to the sub-family Papilinoideae (Dalbergia spinosa, Derris heterophylla and D. indica) and Caesalpinioideae (Caesalpinia crista, Cynometra ramiflora) of the family Fabaceae to establish the genetic variability and phylogenetic affinities. Somatic chromosome numbers were reported for the first time in D. spinosa (2n = 20), C. ramiflora (2n = 26) and D. heterophylla (2n = 24) with reconfirmation of the somatic chromosome number in D. indica (2n = 22) and C. crista (2n = 24). Significant intergeneric and interspecific variation of 4C DNA content was observed and that varied from 8.970 pg in C. ramiflora to 28.730 pg in D. indica. From the RAPD analysis, the dendogram showed clustering of Caesalpinia crista and Cynomitra ramiflora into one group (81.80). In the second groups Derris indica and Derris heterophylla were more similar (83.10) than Dalbergia spinosa (85.80). Species-specific DNA markers (900 bp) obtained in D. spinosa from OPN15; 700 and 2000 bp in C. ramiflora from OPN4 and 400 and 800 bp in D. heterophylla and 500 bp DNA fragment in C. crista obtained from OPN-11 were found characteristic RAPD markers of these species. C. crista found more closer affinity to C. ramiflora of the sub-family Caesalpinioideae [genetic distance (1-F) = 0.847]. Derris indica showed closer genetic relation with D. heterophylla [genetic distance (1-F) = 0.856] than D. spinosa [genetic distance (1-F) = 0.876] where Derris and Dalbergia belongs to the sub-family Papilionoideae. By employing these markers the present study has helped to resolve the relationship between the taxonomically diverse leguminous mangroves and study their ability to coexist with mangroves that would shed light on the evolution of mangroves from terrestrial species.

Stimulating the production of homoisoflavonoids in cell suspension cultures of Caesalpinia pulcherrima using cork tissue

It has previously been demonstrated that cork tissue increases the efficiency of the production of lipophilic secondary metabolites in diverse plant cell suspension cultures. In the present study, three new homoisoflavonoids--named dihydrobonducellin, 2'-methoxydihydrobonducellin, and 2'-methoxybonducellin--and bonducellin and isobonducellin were isolated from Caesalpinia pulcherrima cultured cells coincubated with cork tissue. Cork tissue increased the production of 2'-methoxybonducellin by about 7-fold relative to control cells, and more than 80% of the product was recoverable from the cork tissue. When cork tissue and methyl jasmonate or yeast extract were added simultaneously to the medium, the amount of 2'-methoxybonducellin produced increased further. The production of the other four homoisoflavonoids was enhanced by variable amounts. Our results indicate that the addition of cork tissue would be an effective technique for investigating formation of secondary metabolites that usually accumulate only in trace amounts.

Biosynthesis of tannase and gallic acid from tannin rich substrates by Rhizopus oryzae and Aspergillus foetidus

Modified solid-state fermentation (MSSF) of tannin-rich substrates for production of tannase and gallic acid was carried out using two fungal cultures, Rhizopus oryzae (RO IIT RB-13, NRRL 21498) and Aspergillus foetidus (GMRB013 MTCC 3557). The tannin rich substrates included powdered fruits of Terminalia chebula and Caesalpinia digyna pod cover powder. The different environmental parameters for the maximum production of tannase and gallic acid were optimized through media engineering. The highest yield of tannase and gallic acid was obtained after 60 h in case of Rhizopus oryzae and after 72 h by Aspergillus foetidus with 3 ml of induced inoculum. The optimum initial pH of the fermentation was found to be 4.5 in case of Rhizopus oryzae and 5.0 for Aspergillus foetidus. MSSF was carried out at the optimum conditions of 30 degrees C and 80% relative humidity. Collectively, the data reveal the potential of the modified solid-state fermentation process for the production of tannase and gallic acid from tannin-rich substrates with R. oryzae and A. foetidus.

Evolutionary Operation–Factorial Design Technique for Optimization of Conversion of Mixed Agroproducts Into Gallic Acid

This article presents the optimization of gallic acid production using filamentous fungi from tannin-rich mixed substrates taking into account the interaction effects of six variable process parameters. The methodology adopted for optimization was the evolutionary operation (EVOP)-factorial design technique. This technique combines the factorial method for designing experiments with the EVOP methodology for analyzing the experimental results systematically and arriving at conclusions according to its decision-making procedure. Standard deviation and error limits based on 95% confidence were calculated according to the relationship given in the literature. It was found that the best combinations of the process parameters at the optimum levels were 30 degrees C, 80% relative humidity, pH 5.0, 48-h incubation period, 3 mL of induced inoculum, and 35 g of mixed substrate, resulting in a gallic acid yield of 94.8% under modified solid-state fermentation.