Simultaneous determination of total ergot alkaloids in wheat flour by Orbitrap mass spectrometry

The optimization screening methods for total ergot alkaloids in wheat extracts involve transforming them into a single compound, which is then analyzed via high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry (Orbitrap MS). Orbitrap MS provides highly sensitive and accurate mass measurements, enhancing the selectivity and sensitivity of the analysis. Various hydrolysis and reduction methods have been investigated, and the use of superhydrides has emerged as the most effective method for transforming ergopeptine alkaloids. This study also focused on the epimerization of ergot alkaloids, particularly the differences between R- and S-epimers and their impact on the mass spectra. We validated our method by assessing the linearity, sensitivity, recovery, matrix effects, repeatability, and stability. The limits of detection and quantitation were set at 0.43 and 1.30 μg LSA/kg wheat, respectively. The proposed method offers a robust analytical approach for screening and quantifying total ergot alkaloids in wheat samples, addressing important concerns about their presence in food and feed.

Occurrence of Ergot Alkaloids in Major and Minor Cereals from Northern Italy: A Three Harvesting Years Scenario

Ergot alkaloids (EAs), mycotoxins produced mainly by fungi of the Claviceps genus, have been frequently reported in rye, while their increasingly frequent occurrence in other cereals is likely related to weather conditions, with the incidence of ergot sclerotia in winter grains being related to heavy rainfall and moist soils at critical periods. However, compared to other regulated mycotoxins, data about the prevalence and occurrence of EAs in major and minor cereals harvested in the Mediterranean growing areas are still scant. In this regard, the current study reported the occurrence of EAs in 18 genotypes of winter cereals harvested over 3 years from an experimental field located in North Italy which were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. Results indicate a widespread occurrence of all the major EAs in all the considered cereal crops, especially under supportive meteorological conditions. EA contamination was dependent on the harvest year (p < 0.0001) which was particularly high in 2020 for all the considered species. The results also demonstrated a large co-occurrence of EAs with 98 cereal samples out of 162 contaminated with at least one of the 12 EAs (60% positive samples) in the range LOD: 15,389 μg/kg (median value: 2.32 μg/kg), expressed as the sum of the EAs. Rye was confirmed to be the crop more susceptible to the fungal infection (EAs content up to 4,302 μg/kg). To the best of our knowledge, we have reported the accumulation of EAs in tritordeum (LOD: 15,389 μg/kg) and in emmer (LOD: 1.9 μg/kg) for the first time.

Ergot alkaloids in sclerotia collected in Japan: synthetic profiles and induction of apoptosis by Clavine-type compounds

The genus Claviceps (Clavicipitaceae) is famous for producing ergot alkaloids (EAs) in sclerotia. EAs can cause ergotism, resulting in convulsions and necrosis when ingested, making these compounds a serious concern for food safety. Agroclavine (2), a typical Clavine-type EA, is a causative agent of ergotism and is listed as a compound to be monitored by the European Food Safety Authority. Clavine-type EAs are known to cause cytotoxicity, but the mechanism has not been elucidated. We performed annexin V and PI double-staining followed by flow cytometric analysis to detect apoptosis in HepG2 and PANC-1 cells after exposure to Clavine-type EAs. Clavine-type EAs reduced cell viability and induced apoptosis in both cell lines. We then performed LC-MS analysis of EAs from 41 sclerotia samples of Claviceps collected in Japan. 24 out of 41 sclerotia extracts include peptide-type EAs (ergosine/inine: 4/4', ergotamine: 5, ergocornine/inine: 6/6', α-ergocryptine/inine: 8/8', and ergocristine/inine: 9/9') and 19 sclerotia extracts among 24 sclerotia detected peptide type EAs include Clavine-type EAs (pyroclavine: 1, agroclavine: 2, festuclavine: 3) by LC-MS. We then performed a metabolomic analysis of the EAs in the sclerotia using principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA score plots calculated for EAs suggested the existence of four groups with different EA production patterns. One of the groups was formed by the contribution of Clavine-type EAs. These results suggest that Clavine-type EAs are a family of compounds requiring attention in food safety and livestock production in Japan.

Effects of Heating, Pelleting, and Feed Matrix on Apparent Concentrations of Cereal Ergot Alkaloids in Relation to Growth Performance and Welfare Parameters of Backgrounding Beef Steers

As the contamination of cereal grains with ergot has been increasing in Western Canada, studies were undertaken to evaluate the impacts of heating (60, 80, 120, or 190 °C) alone or in combination with pelleting on concentrations of ergot alkaloids. Fifteen samples of ergot-contaminated grain from Alberta and Saskatchewan were assayed for R and S epimers of six alkaloids (ergocryptine, ergocristine, ergocornine, ergometrine, ergosine, and ergotamine) using HPLC MS/MS. Five samples with distinct alkaloid profiles were then selected for heating and pelleting studies. Heating resulted in a linear increase (p < 0.05) of total R and total S epimers with increasing temperature, although some individual R epimers were stable (ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine). Pelleting also increased (p < 0.05) concentrations of total R and total S epimers detected, although ergometrine concentration decreased (p < 0.05) after pelleting. A feeding study arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial structure used 48 backgrounding Angus-cross steers fed four different diets: (1) Control Mash (CM, no added ergot), (2) Control Pellet (CP), (3) Ergot Mash (EM), or (4) Ergot Pellet (EP). Pelleting heated the ergot to 90−100 °C under 4 bars pressure, but the ergot used in the feeding study was not otherwise heated. Alkaloid concentrations of EM and EP varied by up to 1.1 mg/kg depending on the feed matrix assayed. No differences among treatments were noted for growth performance, feed intake, feed conversion, concentrations of serum prolactin and haptoglobin, hair cortisol, or in temperatures of extremities measured by infrared thermography. The only negative impacts of ergot alkaloids were on blood parameters indicative of reduced immune function or chronic inflammation. Pelleting did not heighten the negative clinical outcomes of ergot, although alkaloid concentrations of pelleted feed increased depending on the matrix assayed. It was hypothesized that the heat and pressure associated with pelleting may enhance the recovery of alkaloids from pelleted feed.

Ammonization of the R- and S-Epimers of Ergot Alkaloids to Assess Detoxification Potential

Detoxification of ergot-contaminated feed by ammonia would be a practical application, given that ammonia is routinely used in the agriculture industry. To assess the effects of ammonia on ergot alkaloids, natural ergot-contaminated wheat was ammoniated. The total concentration of ergot alkaloids (R- and S-epimers) decreased after exposure to ammonia (8-29%). Separately, the total R-epimers decreased in concentration (40-66%), whereas the total S-epimers increased (21-81%). Specific ergot alkaloids demonstrated degradation and/or epimerization after exposure to ammonia, potentially associated with structural differences, and influenced the total concentrations observed. Ammonization of ergot standards resulted in potential degradation products and epimerization, supporting the above results. The use of ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry provides an updated assessment of the detoxification potential of ammonia for ergot alkaloids and the quantification of the S-epimers. Ammonia alters the R- and S-epimers of ergot alkaloids, which may lead to a potential practical detoxification process of ergot-contaminated feed.

In-House Validation of an Efficient and Rapid Procedure for the Simultaneous Determination and Monitoring of 23 Mycotoxins in Grains in Korea

A high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method is described for the simultaneous determination of mycotoxins, including Ergot alkaloids (EAs), in 3 types of grains. The extraction of 23 mycotoxins was evaluated and performed by using a modified QuEChERS-based sample preparation procedure. The proposed method was fully validated on spiked grain samples (barley, wheat and oat) to assess the linearity, limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ), matrix effects, precision and recovery. After validation, this method was applied to 143 samples of various types of 3 grains from the Republic of Korea to survey the level of mycotoxin contamination in Republic of Korean grains. A total of 42 grain samples (29%) were contaminated with at least one of these mycotoxins at levels higher than the LOQ. The results demonstrated that the procedure was suitable for simultaneously determining these mycotoxins in cereals and could be performed for their routine analysis in mycotoxin laboratories.

Correlation patterns prevalence, and co-occurrence of ergot alkaloids in cool-season adapted cereal grains revealed with molecular spectroscopy and LC-MS/MS equipped HPLC system

It is necessary to obtain more recent data on the prevalence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed and food to minimize risks. This study examined the recent presence, co-occurrence, and correlation patterns of six major ergot alkaloids (EAs; i.e. ergocornine, ergocristine, ergocryptine, ergometrine, ergosine, and ergotamine) in cool-season adapted barley (n = 57) and wheat (n = 80) submitted by livestock producers and industries for testing ergot alkaloids/mycotoxins by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry method. Overall, 91% industry-submitted barley samples and 84% industry-submitted wheat samples tested positive for at least one ergot alkaloid and 33% industry-submitted barley and 38% industry-submitted wheat samples were found to be co-contaminated with all six major EAs. The content of total EAs in 9 industry-submitted barley (16%) and 18 industry-submitted wheat (23%) samples exceeded the recommended maximum allowable level for lactating or pregnant animals (250 ppb). All the barley and wheat samples that contained detectable ergosine were found to co-occur with other EAs. Overall, the content of individual EAs was positively correlated with each other and strong correlations (r > 0.8, P < 0.01) were detected between the content of individual EAs and total EAs. These results implied that the industry and producers submitted cool-season adapted barley and wheat samples contaminated with a single EA is likely to contain high levels of other major EAs. The patterns of individual EAs in this study were distinct from previous studies that focus on samples from European countries. Ergocristine was remained as the predominant EAs in the industry-submitted cool-season adapted barley and wheat samples at levels up to 9438.8 and 12416.2 ppb, respectively. While the mean contents of ergosine were the lowest (68.5 and 50.6 ppb for the industry-submitted cool-season adapted barley and wheat samples, respectively). The high prevalence and co-occurrence of EAs indicated that ergot contamination is still posing a significant threat to food and feed industry and more research is expected to reduce the contamination level and explore the toxicological significance of various co-occurrence profiles. A full scale of investigation for all barley and wheat samples is needed to obtain a full picture of mycotoxin contamination.

Prolonged absorption and susceptibility to enterohepatic circulation after oral administration of ergot alkaloids in ewes

The objective of this study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics profile of ergot alkaloids when administered to sheep orally. Although ergot alkaloids frequently contaminate animal feed, current understanding of their pharmacokinetics in animals cannot adequately predict toxicity. Blood samples were collected from ewes at 0.5, 1, 3, 5, and 12 h after oral exposure to 4 ergot alkaloids: ergocornine, ergocristine, ergocryptine, and ergosine, followed by serum analysis of these alkaloids using high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. The alkaloids showed extended absorption time, in addition to clear signs of enterohepatic circulation. This pharmacokinetic profile suggests potential enhanced toxicity in animals with disorders related to secretion of bile acid. It may also explain the high susceptibility of sheep to ergot poisoning compared to other species. An extended sampling protocol (> 12 h) is necessary, however, to identify the pharmacokinetic properties of ergot alkaloids in ewes. In conclusion, ewes exposed to ergot alkaloids showed a prolonged absorption phase and enterohepatic circulation, which is in contrast with human ergot pharmacokinetics.

Validation of a New Sensitive Method for the Detection and Quantification of R and S-Epimers of Ergot Alkaloids in Canadian Spring Wheat Utilizing Deuterated Lysergic Acid Diethylamide as an Internal Standard

Ergot sclerotia effect cereal crops intended for consumption. Ergot alkaloids within ergot sclerotia are assessed to ensure contamination is below safety standards established for human and animal health. Ergot alkaloids exist in two configurations, the R and S-epimers. It is important to quantify both configurations. The objective of this study was to validate a new ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method for quantification of six R and six S-epimers of ergot alkaloids in hard red spring wheat utilizing deuterated lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-D3) as an internal standard. Validation parameters such as linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), matrix effects, recovery and precision were investigated. For the 12 epimers analyzed, low LOD and LOQ values were observed, allowing for the sensitive detection of ergot epimers. Matrix effects ranged between 101-113% in a representative wheat matrix. Recovery was 68.3-119.1% with an inter-day precision of <24% relative standard deviation (RSD). The validation parameters conform with previous studies and exhibit differences between the R and S-epimers which has been rarely documented. This new sensitive method allows for the use of a new internal standard and can be incorporated and applied to research or diagnostic laboratories.

Diversification of ergot alkaloids and heritable fungal symbionts in morning glories

Heritable microorganisms play critical roles in life cycles of many macro-organisms but their prevalence and functional roles are unknown for most plants. Bioactive ergot alkaloids produced by heritable Periglandula fungi occur in some morning glories (Convolvulaceae), similar to ergot alkaloids in grasses infected with related fungi. Ergot alkaloids have been of longstanding interest given their toxic effects, psychoactive properties, and medical applications. Here we show that ergot alkaloids are concentrated in four morning glory clades exhibiting differences in alkaloid profiles and are more prevalent in species with larger seeds than those with smaller seeds. Further, we found a phylogenetically-independent, positive correlation between seed mass and alkaloid concentrations in symbiotic species. Our findings suggest that heritable symbiosis has diversified among particular clades by vertical transmission through seeds combined with host speciation, and that ergot alkaloids are particularly beneficial to species with larger seeds. Our results are consistent with the defensive symbiosis hypothesis where bioactive ergot alkaloids from Periglandula symbionts protect seeds and seedlings from natural enemies, and provide a framework for exploring microbial chemistry in other plant-microbe interactions.

Simultaneous Determination of Ergot Alkaloids in Swine and Dairy Feeds Using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Ergot alkaloids (EAs) are mycotoxins mainly produced by the fungus Claviceps purpurea. EAs are known to affect the nervous system and to be vasoconstrictors in humans and animals. This work presents recent advances in swine and dairy feeds regarding 11 major EAs, namely ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, ergocornine, ergocryptine, ergocristine, ergosinine, ergotaminine, ergocorninine, ergocryptinine, and ergocristinine. A reliable, sensitive, and accurate multiple mycotoxin method, based on extraction with a Mycosep 150 multifunctional column prior to analysis using UHPLC-MS/MS, was validated using samples of swine feed (100) and dairy feed (100) for the 11 targeted EAs. Based on the obtained validation results, this method showed good performance recovery and inter-day and intra-day precision that are in accordance with standard criteria to ensure reliable occurrence data on EA contaminants. More than 49% of the swine feed samples were contaminated with EAs, especially ergocryptine(-ine) (40%) and ergosine (-ine) and ergotamine (-ine) (37%). However, many of the 11 EAs were not detectable in any swine feed samples. In addition, there were contaminated (positive) dairy feed samples, especially for ergocryptine (-ine) (50%), ergosine (-ine) (48%), ergotamine (-ine), and ergocristine (-ine) (49%). The mycotoxin levels in the feed samples in this study almost complied with the European Union regulations.

Determination of principal ergot alkaloids in swine feeding

BACKGROUND

Ergot alkaloids are secondary metabolites produced by fungi in the genus Claviceps. They contaminate a large variety of cereals, such as rye, triticale, wheat and barley. The ingestion of contaminated cereals might cause adverse health effects in humans and animals. In fact, pigs, cattle, sheep, and poultry are involved in sporadic outbreaks and, although there are several studies about occurrence of ergot alkaloids in grain cereals, there are scarce studies focused on compound feed.

RESULTS

Twelve ergot alkaloids have been quantified in 228 feed samples intended for swine. The analytes were extracted using QuEChERS with Z-Sep+ as sorbent in the clean-up step, which reduced the matrix effect, allowing limits of quantification between 2.1 and 21.7 μg kg^-1 . The analytes were subsequently quantified by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). A total of 29 samples (12.7%) revealed contamination by at least one ergot alkaloid, and among contaminated samples, 65% were contaminated by more than one. Only 6 of 12 target ergot alkaloids showed concentrations above the limit of quantification. The concentrations for individual ergot alkaloids ranged between 5.9 μg kg^-1 for ergosinine to 145.3 μg kg^-1 for ergometrine (the predominant ergot alkaloid), while the total ergot alkaloid content ranged from 5.9 to 158.7 μg kg^-1 .

CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of ergot alkaloids in feed samples in Spain seems to be lower than in other regions of Europe. All the samples fulfilled current recommendations of the feed industry about practical limits for ergot alkaloids in pig feeds. This suggests that the feeds are safe for pig consumption, regarding the presence of ergot alkaloids. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

A Targeted UHPLC-MS/MS Method Validated for the Quantification of Ergot Alkaloids in Cereal-Based Baby Food from the Belgian Market

Following pending new legislation in the European Union setting a maximum of 20 ng g⁻¹ for the total sum of ergot alkaloids in dry cereal-based baby food, a new UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed. It is suitable for the quantification of six ergot alkaloids: Ergocornine, ergocristine, ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, α-ergocryptine, and their corresponding epimers. The method is able to reliably detect individual ergot alkaloids at a level as low as 0.5 ng g⁻¹. The method uses a modified QuEChERS extraction approach before UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. The method showed good sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. It has been applied to 49 samples from the Belgian market. In 26 samples, not a single ergot alkaloid was detected while in 23 out of 49 samples at least one ergot alkaloid was detected with 2 samples containing 12 ergot alkaloids. Ergometrine was the alkaloid most frequently detected i.e., 16 out of 49 samples. Only one sample, testing positive for all 12 ergot alkaloids, would be non-conforming to the newly proposed Maximum Residue Level (MRL).

Cleaving Ergot Alkaloids by Hydrazinolysis-A Promising Approach for a Sum Parameter Screening Method

Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins formed by fungi of the Claviceps genus, which are some of the most common contaminants of food and feed worldwide. These toxins are a structurally heterogeneous group of compounds, sharing an ergoline backbone. Six structures and their corresponding stereoisomers are typically quantified by either HPLC-FLD or HPLC-MS/MS and the values subsequently summed up to determine the total ergot alkaloid content. For the development of a screening method targeting all ergot alkaloids simultaneously, the alkaloids need to be transferred to one homogeneous structure: a lysergic acid derivative. In this study, two promising cleaving methods—acidic esterification and hydrazinolysis—are compared, using dihydroergocristine as a model compound. While the acidic esterification proved to be unsuitable, due to long reaction times and oxidation sensitivity, hydrazinolysis reached a quantitative yield in 40‒60 min. Parallel workup of several samples is possible. An increasing effect on the reaction rate by the addition of ammonium iodide was demonstrated. Application of hydrazinolysis to a major ergot alkaloid mix solution showed that all ergopeptines were cleaved, but ergometrine/-inine was barely affected. Still, hydrazinolysis is a suitable tool for the development of a sum parameter screening method for ergot alkaloids in food and feed.

Beef cattle that respond differently to fescue toxicosis have distinct gastrointestinal tract microbiota

Tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum) is a widely used forage grass which shares a symbiosis with the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala. The endophyte produces an alkaloid toxin that provides herbivory, heat and drought resistance to the grass, but can cause fescue toxicosis in grazing livestock. Fescue toxicosis can lead to reduced weight gain and milk yields resulting in significant losses to the livestock industry. The objective of this study was to identify bacterial and fungal communities associated with fescue toxicosis tolerance. In this trial, 149 Angus cows across two farms were continuously exposed to toxic, endophyte-infected, fescue for a total of 13 weeks. Of those 149 cows, 40 were classified into either high (HT) or low (LT) tolerance groups according to their growth performance (weight gain). 20 HT and 20 LT cattle balanced by farm were selected for amplicon sequencing to compare the fecal microbiota of the two tolerance groups. This study reveals significantly (q<0.05) different bacterial and fungal microbiota between HT and LT cattle, and indicates that fungal phylotypes may be important for an animal’s response to fescue toxicosis: We found that fungal phylotypes affiliating to the Neocallimastigaceae, which are known to be important fiber-degrading fungi, were consistently more abundant in the HT cattle. Whereas fungal phylotypes related to the genus Thelebolus were more abundant in the LT cattle. This study also found more pronounced shifts in the microbiota in animals receiving higher amounts of the toxin. We identified fungal phylotypes which were consistently more abundant either in HT or LT cattle and may thus be associated with the respective animal’s response to fescue toxicosis. Our results thus suggest that some fungal phylotypes might be involved in mitigating fescue toxicosis.

Optimized Analysis of Ergot Alkaloids in Rye Products by Liquid Chromatography-Fluorescence Detection Applying Lysergic Acid Diethylamide as an Internal Standard

Analysis of ergot alkaloids remains a topic of importance and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has encouraged laboratories to provide monitoring data for the further evaluation of their occurrence in food and feed. While LC-MS/MS has dominated developments in recent years, LC-FLD is still more widespread, especially in developing countries. To improve the analysis of ergot alkaloids by LC-FLD, we developed an improved protocol introducing lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for internal standardization. Several aspects such as the composition and pH of the extraction medium, type of sorbent and conditions applied for solid-phase extraction/clean-up, use of a keeper during final evaporation and the type of syringe filter used for filtration prior to injection were thoroughly investigated. Optimized conditions comprise extraction by ethyl acetate, methanol and 28% aqueous ammonia in combination with basic aluminum oxide for extract clean-up. Use of a keeper was found inappropriate as LC-FLD analysis was significantly affected by co-eluting keeper components. Similar observations were made with some of the investigated syringe filters, where polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) proved to be the most suitable. Validation and application of the optimized methodology to real samples provided limits of detection and quantification suitable for the evaluation of relevant ergot alkaloid contaminations in rye and bakery products with superior precision that was facilitated by the introduced internal standard, LSD.

Links Between Genetic Groups, Host Specificity, and Ergot-Alkaloid Profiles within Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. on Slovenian Grasses

In the present study, the genetic relationships and ergot-alkaloid production of the fungus Claviceps purpurea on grasses were investigated, to determine any associations between grass host specificity, ergot-alkaloid production, and geographic origin. C. purpurea sclerotia were obtained from wild and cultivated grasses along a 300-km climatic gradient, from sub-Mediterranean to continental climates. Twenty-one infected grass samples provided 39 sclerotia for analysis of the ergot alkaloids ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, ergocornine, ergocryptine, and ergocristine, and their "-inine" epimers, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. C. purpurea ribosomal DNA underwent molecular classification to determine any grass host or geographic specificity of ergot-alkaloid composition for the different operational taxonomic units. Molecular analysis of sclerotia ribosomal DNA showed three genetic groups, with some associations with specific grass host taxonomic groups. The ergot-alkaloid composition data were in agreement with the data obtained by molecular methods. The most frequent ergot-alkaloid epimers were ergocristine, and ergosine. The total ergot-alkaloid concentrations in sclerotia varied from 59 to 4,200 mg kg^-1, which corresponds to 0.059 to 4.2 mg kg^-1 in animal feed (assuming ergot alkaloids at 1,000 mg kg^-1 sclerotia). Therefore, grasses can be associated with significant levels of ergot alkaloids. In addition, the ergot-alkaloid compositions of C. purpurea sclerotia can be different for infections with different C. purpurea genetic groups, because these show different ergot-alkaloid compositions.

Immunochemical Analysis of Paxilline and Ergot Alkaloid Mycotoxins in Grass Seeds and Plants

Limited availability of toxin standards for lolitrem B and ergovaline impedes routine control of grasses for endophyte toxins. This study aimed at assessing the applicability of an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for the indole-diterpene mycotoxin paxilline, in combination with a generic EIA for ergot alkaloids, as alternative parameters for screening purposes. Analysis of grass seeds and model pastures of four different grass species showed that both EIAs yielded highly positive results for paxilline and ergot alkaloids in perennial ryegrass seeds. Furthermore, evidence for natural occurrence of paxilline in grass in Germany was obtained. High performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis qualitatively confirmed the paxilline EIA results but showed that paxilline analogues 1'-O-acetylpaxilline and 13-desoxypaxilline were the predominant compounds in seeds and grass. In the absence of easily accessible reference standards for specific analysis of some major endophyte toxins, analysis of paxilline and ergot alkaloids by EIA may be suitable substitute parameters. The major advantage of this approach is its ease of use and speed, providing an analytical tool which could enhance routine screening for endophyte toxins in pasture.

Effects of Continuously Feeding Diets Containing Cereal Ergot Alkaloids on Nutrient Digestibility, Alkaloid Recovery in Feces, and Performance Traits of Ram Lambs

Allowable limits for cereal ergot alkaloids in livestock feeds are being re-examined, and the objective of this study was to compare nutrient digestibility, growth performance and carcass characteristics of ram lambs fed a range of alkaloid concentrations, including the maximum currently allowed in Canada (2 to 3 ppm). Four pelleted diets were fed: control, with no added alkaloids; 930; 1402; and 2447 ppb alkaloids based on total R and S epimers. Eight ram lambs (30.0 ± 3.1 kg) were used to examine the impacts of dietary treatments on nutrient digestibility and alkaloid recovery from feces. Concentrations of dietary alkaloids evaluated did not affect nutrient digestibility or N metabolism. Excepting ergocornine and ergocryptine, recovery of alkaloids in feces varied among periods, suggesting that individual lambs may differ in their ability to metabolize ergocristine, ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine and their S epimers. In a second experiment, ram lambs (n = 47, 30 ± 8 kg) were randomly assigned to a diet and weighed weekly until they achieved a slaughter weight of ≥ 45 kg (average 9 weeks; range 6 to 13 weeks). Intake of DM did not differ (p = 0.91) among diets, although lambs fed 2447 ppb alkaloids had a lower (p < 0.01) ADG than did lambs receiving other treatments. The concentration of serum prolactin linearly declined (p < 0.01) with increasing alkaloids. Feeding 2447 ppb total alkaloids negatively impacted growth, while feeding 1402 ppb did not harm growth performance, but reduced carcass dressing percentage. Due to different concentrations of alkaloids affecting growth and carcass characteristics in the present study, determining allowable limits for total dietary alkaloids will require a better understanding of impacts of alkaloid profiles and interactions among individual alkaloids.

Changing Patterns of Fungal Toxins in Crops: Challenges for Analysts

This short review discusses the need to manage climate-driven expansion of old toxins in new geographic areas (e.g., aflatoxin or fumonisin in corn in historically cooler areas, and ergot where rainfall and cropping patterns have changed). In addition, a renewed consideration of the toxins that can occur in feed sources used in cool-season dairy areas is needed (e.g., silage and distillers dry grains with solubles). A separate issue concerns genetic changes that are occurring in the species that cause Fusarium head blight/Gibberella ear rot. Small differences in climate appear to determine the distribution of the two dominant populations (native to the new world and from Asia). The chemotype that produces deoxynivalenol via the monoacetate at the 3 position results in the accumulation of somewhat more deoxynivalenol than the native population, which involves the monoacetate at the 15 position. There are also genetic changes occurring that have resulted in populations that produce different metabolites. Similarly, an increase in the area where Aspergillus flavus can thrive and the discovery of the sexual stage of this fungus have raised the potential of genetic change accelerated by climate. To address all these issues, new methods and increased availability of reference standards, as well as training and awareness, will be required.

Multi-mycotoxin Analysis of Finished Grain and Nut Products Using Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Positive Electrospray Ionization-Quadrupole Orbital Ion Trap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography using positive electrospray ionization and quadrupole orbital ion trap high-resolution mass spectrometry was evaluated for analyzing mycotoxins in finished cereal and nut products. Optimizing the orbital ion trap mass analyzer in full-scan mode using mycotoxin-fortified matrix extracts gave mass accuracies, δM, of < ± 2.0 ppm at 70,000 full width at half maximum (FWHM) mass resolution (RFWHM). The limits of quantitation were matrix- and mycotoxin-dependent, ranging from 0.02 to 11.6 μg/kg. Mean recoveries and standard deviations for mycotoxins from acetonitrile/water extraction at their relevant fortification levels were 91 ± 10, 94 ± 10, 98 ± 12, 91 ± 13, 99 ± 15, and 93 ± 17% for corn, rice, wheat, almond, peanut, and pistachio, respectively. Nineteen mycotoxins with concentrations ranging from 0.3 (aflatoxin B1 in peanut and almond) to 1175 μg/kg (fumonisin B1 in corn flour) were found in 35 of the 70 commercial grain and nut samples surveyed. Mycotoxins could be identified at δM < ± 5 ppm by identifying the precursor and product ions in full-scan MS and data-dependent MS/MS modes. This method demonstrates a new analytical approach for monitoring mycotoxins in finished grain and nut products.

Occurrence of Ergot and Ergot Alkaloids in Western Canadian Wheat and Other Cereals

A new method was developed to analyze 10 ergot alkaloids in cereal grains. Analytes included both "ine" and "inine" type ergot alkaloids. Validation of the method showed it performed with good accuracy and precision and that minor enhancement due to matrix effects was present during LC-MS/MS analysis, but was mitigated by use of an internal standard. The method was used to survey durum and wheat harvested in 2011, a year in which ergot infection was particularly widespread in western Canada. A strong linear relationship between the concentration of ergot alkaloids and the presence of ergot sclerotia was observed. In addition, shipments of cereals from 2010-2012 were also monitored for ergot alkaloids. Concentrations of total ergot alkaloids in shipments were lower than observed in harvest samples, and averaged from 0.065 mg/kg in barley to 1.14 mg/kg in rye. In shipments, the concentration of ergot alkaloids was significantly lower in wheat of higher grades.

Analysis of Ergot Alkaloids

The principles and application of established and newer methods for the quantitative and semi-quantitative determination of ergot alkaloids in food, feed, plant materials and animal tissues are reviewed. The techniques of sampling, extraction, clean-up, detection, quantification and validation are described. The major procedures for ergot alkaloid analysis comprise liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD). Other methods based on immunoassays are under development and variations of these and minor techniques are available for specific purposes.

Identification and structural elucidation of ergotryptamine, a new ergot alkaloid produced by genetically modified aspergillus nidulans and natural isolates of Epichloë species

Ergot alkaloid pathway reconstruction in Aspergillus nidulans is an approach used to better understand the biosynthesis of these mycotoxins. An engineered strain named A. nidulans WFC (expressing ergot alkaloid synthesis genes dmaW, easF, and easC) produced the established intermediate N-methyl-4-dimethylallyltryptophan, as well as an uncharacterized ergot alkaloid. We investigated the chemical structure of the new metabolite and its role in the ergot alkaloid pathway. Mass spectrometry, labeling, and NMR studies showed that the unknown ergot alkaloid, designated here as ergotryptamine, differed from N-methyl-4-dimethylallyltryptophan by the loss of the carboxyl group, addition of a hydroxyl group, and shift in position of a carbon–carbon double bond. Feeding studies with Aspergillus mutants did not show ergotryptamine turnover, suggesting it is a pathway byproduct as opposed to an authentic intermediate. Several Epichloë species also produced this metabolite, and further investigations revealed the equivalency of ergotryptamine with an Epichloë-derived ergot alkaloid provisionally described as 6,7-secolysergine.

Dietary ergot alkaloids as a possible cause of tail necrosis in rabbits

This study describes the association between tail necrosis in rabbits and mycotoxins in rabbit feed. Clinical cases of tail necrosis were observed in 14 out of 103 rabbits kept in an outdoor group housing, fed with hay and a commercial pelleted feed. The observed clinical symptoms, alopecia, erosions, crusts and necrosis were restricted to the tail area and exclusively occurred in young rabbits aged 113 ± 20 days. Dermatological examination suggested that ischemia had caused necrosis. Analysis of blood samples showed an elevated level of creatine kinase. No weight loss occurred in affected rabbits. Trauma caused by injuries or technopathic lesions was also excluded. Histopathologically, the lesions were characterized by acute muscle fibre degeneration and chronic active dermatitis with granulation tissue formation. Necropsy of one rabbit revealed hepatocellular degeneration and necrosis as remarkable findings. Feed analysis for ergot alkaloids by enzyme immunoassays yielded a mean and maximum ergot alkaloid content of 410 ± 250 μg/kg and 1,700 μg/kg, respectively. Faeces of affected rabbits contained ergot alkaloids at levels up to 200 μg/kg. The mean and maximum dietary intake of total ergot alkaloids were 17 and 71 μg/kg bodyweight, respectively. Fusarium toxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins) were also found in the feed, but at levels which did not explain the observed effects. The results indicate that ergot alkaloids may have been the cause of tail necrosis, which is supported by literature data showing that rabbits are especially sensitive towards these toxins.

Novel solid-phase extraction for epimer-specific quantitation of ergot alkaloids in rye flour and wheat germ oil

Ergot alkaloids and their epimer-specific determination have gained increasing importance for food safety. A solid-phase extraction and cleanup method based on sodium-neutralized strong cation exchange (Na(+)-SCX) was developed to quantitate 12 priority ergot alkaloids in rye flour and wheat germ oil by HPLC fluorescence analysis. Sample preparation is achieved by omitting acidic and alkaline conditions enabling minimized epimerization, which is necessary to determine ergot alkaloids according to their natural distribution in foods. Ergot alkaloids are eluted from SCX-column by forming ion pairs using a sodium hexanesulfonate containing solution which prevents epimerization for at least 96 h. Method validation yielded recoveries of 80-120% (rye flour) and 71-96% (wheat germ oil) with a maximum limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 2.0 μg kg(-1) per ergot alkaloid for both matrices. The applicability of the developed method was demonstrated by analyzing 16 samples from German retail markets: 9 rye flours (max 178 ± 5 μg kg(-1)) and, reported for the first time, 7 wheat germ oils (max 56.8 ± 2.7 μg kg(-1)) expressed as the sum of 12 ergot alkaloids.

Faces of a changing climate: semi-quantitative multi-mycotoxin analysis of grain grown in exceptional climatic conditions in Norway

Recent climatological research predicts a significantly wetter climate in Southern Norway as a result of global warming. Thus, the country has already experienced unusually wet summer seasons in the last three years (2010–2012). The aim of this pilot study was to apply an existing multi-analyte LC-MS/MS method for the semi-quantitative determination of 320 fungal and bacterial metabolites in Norwegian cereal grain samples from the 2011 growing season. Such knowledge could provide important information for future survey and research programmes in Norway. The method includes all regulated and well-known mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone. In addition, a wide range of less studied compounds are included in the method, e.g., Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids and other metabolites produced by fungal species within Fusarium, Penicillium and Aspergillus. Altogether, 46 metabolites, all of fungal origin, were detected in the 76 barley, oats and wheat samples. The analyses confirmed the high prevalence and relatively high concentrations of type-A and -B trichothecenes (e.g., deoxynivalenol up to 7230 µg/kg, HT-2 toxin up to 333 µg/kg). Zearalenone was also among the major mycotoxins detected (maximum concentration 1670 µg/kg). Notably, several other Fusarium metabolites such as culmorin, 2-amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol and avenacein Y were co-occurring. Furthermore, the most prevalent Alternaria toxin was alternariol with a maximum concentration of 449 µg/kg. A number of Penicillium and Aspergillus metabolites were also detected in the samples, e.g., sterigmatocystin in concentrations up to 20 µg/kg.

Accumulation of ergot alkaloids during conidiophore development in Aspergillus fumigatus

Production of ergot alkaloids in the opportunistic fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus is restricted to conidiating cultures. These cultures typically accumulate several pathway intermediates at concentrations comparable to that of the pathway end product. We investigated the contribution of different cell types that constitute the multicellular conidiophore of A. fumigatus to the production of ergot alkaloid pathway intermediates versus the pathway end product, fumigaclavine C. A relatively minor share (11 %) of the ergot alkaloid yield on a molar basis was secreted into the medium, whereas the remainder was associated with the conidiating colonies. Entire conidiating cultures (containing hyphae, vesicle of conidiophore, phialides of conidiophore, and conidia) accumulated higher levels of the pathway intermediate festuclavine and lower levels of the pathway end product fumigaclavine C than did isolated, abscised conidia, indicating that conidiophores and/or hyphae have a quantitatively different ergot alkaloid profile compared to that of conidia. Differences in alkaloid accumulation among cell types also were indicated by studies with conidiophore development mutants. A ∆medA mutant, in which conidiophores are numerous but develop poorly, accumulated higher levels of pathway intermediates than did the wildtype or a complemented ∆medA mutant. A ∆stuA mutant, which grows mainly as hyphae and produces very few, abnormal conidiophores, produced no detectable ergot alkaloids. The data indicated heterogeneous spatial distribution of ergot alkaloid pathway intermediates versus pathway end product in conidiating cultures of A. fumigatus. This skewed distribution may reflect differences in abundance or activity of pathway enzymes among cell types of those conidiating cultures.

Aptamer-based molecular recognition of lysergamine, metergoline and small ergot alkaloids

Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins produced by fungi of the genus Claviceps, which infect cereal crops and grasses. The uptake of ergot alkaloid contaminated cereal products can be lethal to humans and animals. For food safety assessment, analytical techniques are currently used to determine the presence of ergot alkaloids in food and feed samples. However, the number of samples which can be analyzed is limited, due to the cost of the equipment and the need for skilled personnel. In order to compensate for the lack of rapid tests for the detection of ergot alkaloids, the aim of this study was to develop a specific recognition element for ergot alkaloids, which could be further applied to produce a colorimetric reaction in the presence of these toxins. As recognition elements, single-stranded DNA ligands were selected by using an iterative selection procedure named SELEX, i.e., Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment. After several selection cycles, the resulting aptamers were cloned and sequenced. A surface plasmon resonance analysis enabled determination of the dissociation constants of the complexes of aptamers and lysergamine. Dissociation constants in the nanomolar range were obtained with three selected aptamers. One of the selected aptamers, having a dissociation constant of 44 nM, was linked to gold nanoparticles and it was possible to produce a colorimetric reaction in the presence of lysergamine. This system could also be applied to small ergot alkaloids in an ergot contaminated flour sample.

[Enzyme immunoassay of the secondary metabolites of micromycetes as components of lichen substances]

The composition of low-molecular biologically active metabolites typical of microscopic fungi has been studied in blastemas of fruticose lichens of the genera Cladonia, Cetraria, Evernia, Bryoria, and Usnes. The enzyme immunoassay method showed the presence of sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, citrinin, alternariol, and diacetoxyscirpenol, which occurred regularly and, in most cases, at a frequency of 55 to 100%. The highest levels of accumulation were 0.001-0.003% for emodin, 0.0002% for alternariol and citrinin, 0.0001% for sterigmatocystin and mycophenolic acid, and 0.00005% of the weight of air-dry material for diacetoxyscirpenol. Other metabolites (cyclopiazonic acid, ergot alkaloids, ochratoxin A, PR toxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisins) were detected in these lichens less frequently (sometimes only upon the expansion of the territory of sampling), and their content was no more than 0.00005%. The peculiarities of the component composition and the levels of accumulation of fungal metabolites in lichens of different taxonomic affiliation were discussed.

Investigation of the metabolism of ergot alkaloids in cell culture by fourier transformation mass spectrometry

Ergot alkaloids are known toxic secondary metabolites of the fungus Claviceps purpurea occurring in various grains, especially rye products. The liver is responsible for converting the ergot alkaloids into metabolites; however, the toxic impact of these end products of metabolism is still unknown. The aim of this study was to analyze the metabolism of ergot alkaloids in colon and liver cell lines (HT-29, HepG2), as well as in human primary renal cells (RPTEC). It was shown that cells in vitro are able to metabolize ergot alkaloids, forming a variety of metabolic compounds. Significant differences between the used cell types could be identified, and a suitable model system was established using HT-29 cells, performing an intensive metabolism to hydroxylated metabolites. The formed substances were analyzed by coupling of high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and Fourier transformation mass spectrometry (HPLC-FLD-FTMS) as a powerful tool to identify known and unknown metabolites.

Ricinoleic acid as a marker for ergot impurities in rye and rye products

Ergot alkaloid and ricinoleic acid contents of 63 ergot sclerotia samples from rye throughout Germany of the harvest years 2006-2009 were determined. Alkaloid contents were analyzed by means of high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and ricinoleic acid contents by means of gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Ergot alkaloid amounts ranged from 0.01 to 0.2 g/100 g of sclerotia with an average amount of 0.08 g/100 g. Ergotamine and ergocristine were identified as lead alkaloids representing 57% (w/w) of the total alkaloid content. The average ricinoleic acid amount in the ergot sclerotia was 10.3 g/100 g. Because of the low variation of ricinoleic acid content in the ergot sclerotia, a new method for the determination of ricinoleic acid in rye products as a marker for ergot contaminations was developed. This method allows the determination of ergot impurities as low as 0.01% (w/w). Furthermore, 29 rye products (flours, bread mix, bread) were investigated for their ricinoleic acid and ergot alkaloid contents.

Indole-diterpenes and ergot alkaloids in Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) infected with Claviceps cynodontis from an outbreak of tremors in cattle

Tremorgenic syndromes in mammals are commonly associated with indole-diterpenoid alkaloids of fungal origin. Cattle are sometimes affected by tremors (also called "staggers") when they graze on toxic grass pastures, and Bermuda grass ( Cynodon dactylon , kweek) has been known to be associated with tremors for several decades. This study reports the identification of paspalitrems and paspaline-like indole-diterpenes in the seedheads of Claviceps cynodontis -infected Bermuda grass collected from a pasture that had caused a staggers syndrome in cattle in South Africa and thereby links the condition to specific mycotoxins. The highest concentration (about 150 mg/kg) was found for paspalitrem B. Ergonovine and ergine (lysergic acid amide), together with their C-8 epimers, were found to co-occur with the indole-diterpenes at concentrations of about 10 microg/kg. The indole-diterpene profile of the extract from the ergotized Bermuda grass was similar to that of Claviceps paspali sclerotia. However, the C. paspali sclerotia contained in addition agroclavine and elymoclavine. This is the first study linking tremors associated with grazing of Bermuda grass to specific tremorgenic indole-diterpenoid mycotoxins.

Development and validation of an LC-MS method for quantitation of ergot alkaloids in lateral saphenous vein tissue

A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method for simultaneous quantitation of seven ergot alkaloids (lysergic acid, ergonovine, ergovaline, ergocornine, ergotamine, ergocryptine, and ergocristine) in vascular tissue was developed and validated. Reverse-phase chromatography, coupled to an electrospray ionization source, was used to separate and ionize alkaloids. Singly protonated molecular ions for each alkaloid and methysergide (internal standard), were detected by single-ion monitoring (SIM). Calibration curves were obtained over a linear range of 0.1 to 40 pmol on column with correlation coefficients better than 0.994. Method recoveries were 68.4% to 111.0%. Intra-assay precision was 3.4% to 16.1%. Matrix effects were observed and overcome by introducing matrix components into calibrant solutions to create matrix-diluted standards. Limits of detection and quantitation were 0.05 pmol and 0.1 pmol, respectively. Method ruggedness tests resulted in recoveries of 86.1 to 122% with an interassay precision of 7.9% to 22.8%. These results indicate that this method is suitable for quantitation of alkaloids extracted from in vitro-exposed vascular tissue.

Determination of ergot alkaloids: purity and stability assessment of standards and optimization of extraction conditions for cereal samples

Results obtained from a purity study on standards of the 6 major ergot alkaloids ergometrine, ergotamine, ergosine, ergocristine, ergocryptine, and ergocornine and their corresponding epimers are discussed. The 6 ergot alkaloids studied have been defined by the European Food Safety Authority as those that are the most common and physiologically active. The purity of the standards was investigated by means of liquid chromatography with diode array detection, electrospray ionization, and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-ESI-TOF-MS). All of the standards assessed showed purity levels considerably above 98% apart from ergocristinine (94%), ergosine (96%), and ergosinine (95%). Also discussed is the optimization of extraction conditions presented in a recently published method for the quantitation of ergot alkaloids in food samples using solid-phase extraction with primary secondary amine (PSA) before LC/MS/MS. Based on the results obtained from these optimization studies, a mixture of acetonitrile with ammonium carbonate buffer was used as extraction solvent, as recoveries for all analyzed ergot alkaloids were significantly higher than those with the other solvents. Different sample-solvent ratios and extraction times showed just minor influences in extraction efficacy. Finally, the stability of the ergot alkaloids in both raw cereals and cereal-based processed food extracts was studied. According to these studies, extracts should be prepared and analyzed the same day or stored below ambient temperatures. Barley and rye extracts, which were stored at 4 and 15 degrees C after PSA cleanup, proved to be stable overnight. However, storage over a period of 14 days at 4 degrees C resulted in significant epimerization, which was most pronounced in rye and particularly for ergocornine, ergocryptine, and ergocristine.

Simultaneous determination of six major ergot alkaloids and their epimers in cereals and foodstuffs by LC-MS-MS

This paper describes a new and rapid method for accurate quantification of the six ergot alkaloids, ergometrine, ergotamine, ergosine, ergocristine, ergocryptine, and ergocornine, by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The six ergot alkaloids studied have been defined by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as among the most common and physiologically active ones. In addition, the method enables the quantification of the corresponding six epimers (ergo-inines) of these ergot alkaloids. This is of considerable importance in terms of the differences in toxicity of the isomeric forms. The method involves extraction under alkaline conditions using a mixture of acetonitrile and ammonium carbonate buffer followed by a rapid clean-up using dispersive solid-phase extraction with PSA (primary secondary amine) and a short chromatographic LC-run (21 min) with subsequent MS-MS detection. The method was developed and validated using ten different cereal and food samples. The major strength of the new method compared with previously published techniques is the simplicity of the clean-up procedure and the short analysis time. The limits of quantification were 0.17 to 2.78 μg kg(-1) depending on the analyte and matrix. Recovery values for the 12 ergot alkaloids spiked into ten different matrices at levels of 5, 50, and 100 μg kg(-1) were between 69 and 105% for 85 of 90 recovery measurements made over six days. Measurement uncertainty values were highly satisfactory. At a concentration level of 5 μg kg(-1) the expanded measurement uncertainty ranged from ±0.56 to ±1.49 μg kg(-1), at a concentration level of 100 μg kg(-1) the expanded measurement uncertainty ranged from ±8.9 to ±20 μg kg(-1). Both LOQs and measurement uncertainties were dependent on the analyte but almost independent of the matrix. The method performance was satisfactory when tested in a mini-intercomparison study between three laboratories from three different countries.

Clavicipitaceous fungi associated with ergoline alkaloid-containing convolvulaceae

Ergoline alkaloids are a group of physiologically active natural products occurring in taxonomically unrelated fungal and plant taxa Clavicipitaceae (Hypocreales) and Convolvulaceae (Solanales). We show in the present paper that clavicipitaceous fungi are associated with four different ergoline alkaloid-containing plant taxa of the family Convolvulaceae. These fungi are macroscopically visible on the adaxial surface when young leaf buds are opened or are detectable by molecular biological techniques in seeds. Detectability of the fungus correlates with the absence or presence of ergoline alkaloids within the respective plant organ. The fungi contain the gene (dmaW) responsible for the committed step in ergoline alkaloid biosynthesis. Sequencing of ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA and internal transcribed spacer) as well as the dmaW gene (partial) and construction of phylogenetic trees show that the fungi are clavicipitaceous, not identical but very closely related.

Effects of Fescue Type and Sampling Date on the Ruminal Disappearance Kinetics of Autumn-Stockpiled Tall Fescue

Two tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) forages, one an experimental host plant/endophyte association containing a novel endophyte (HM4) that produces low or nil concentrations of ergot alkaloids, and the other a typical association of Kentucky 31 tall fescue and the wild-type endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum; E+), were autumn-stockpiled following late-summer clipping and fertilization with 56 kg/ha of N to assess the nutritive value and ruminal disappearance kinetics of autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages. Beginning on December 4, 2003, sixteen 361 +/- 56.4-kg replacement dairy heifers were stratified by weight and breeding and assigned to one of four 1.6-ha pastures (2 each of E+ and HM4) that were strip-grazed throughout the winter. Pastures were sampled before grazing was initiated (December 4), each time heifers were allowed access to a fresh strip (December 26, January 15, and February 4), and when the study was terminated (February 26). For fiber components, there were no interactions between fescue type and sampling date for either pregrazed or postgrazed forages. Over sampling dates, neutral detergent fiber (NDF; 56.5 to 67.8%), acid detergent fiber (27.7 to 34.9%), hemicellulose (28.8 to 34.0%), cellulose (25.0 to 28.1%), and lignin (3.61 to 10.05%) varied with sampling date, but patterns were almost exclusively curvilinear with time. Ruminal disappearance rate of dry matter (DM) was not affected by any treatment factor (overall mean for both pregrazed and postgrazed forages = 0.050 h(- 1)); similar responses were observed for NDF disappearance (overall mean = 0.048 h(- 1)). Interactions of fescue type and sampling date were observed for both pregrazed and postgrazed forages with respect to effective ruminal disappearance of DM; however, estimates were relatively high for all forages (overall mean = 64.0%). Effective disappearance of NDF was relatively extensive for all forages (overall mean = 55.4% of NDF). Based on the results of this trial, the endophyte status of stockpiled tall fescue forages had little practical effect on forage nutritive value and kinetics of ruminal DM or NDF disappearance. Overall, autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages would appear to be a legitimate and lower cost alternative to harvested forages, and appear to possess suitable nutritional characteristics for developing dairy heifers in the Ozark Highlands.

Ergot alkaloids in Norwegian wild grasses: a mass spectrometric approach

Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins which are produced among fungi in the family Clavicipitaceae. Poisoning with ergot alkaloids is an important veterinary problem in animal husbandry and has recently also been recognised in wild animals. While the poisoning syndrome observed in domestic animals such as cattle, horses and sheep is usually caused by endophyte-infected grass, the recently observed ergotism among Norwegian cervids is probably due to infection of wild grasses with Claviceps. Mass spectrometry is today the method of choice for the rapid qualitative and quantitative determination of many natural compounds. This study uses tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry as well as ion trap mass spectrometry in connection with electrospray(+) ionisation for the quantification, screening and fragmentation of ergot alkaloids in extracts from Claviceps sclerotia that had been picked from wild grasses from several locations in Norway. Ergotamine, ergovaline, ergonovine and ergocryptine were available as standards and were quantified in the extracts, while ergocrystine, ergocornine, ergonine/ergosine, lysergic acid and lysergol were identified on the basis of their molecular weights and semi-quantified. Ergocrystine dominated the alkaloid spectrum of most extracts. Levels of the quantified alkaloids were in the range 0.2-9300 microg/g. Several unknown ergot alkaloids were found in the extracts. MS(n) experiments identified some as simple lysergic acid amide derivatives, while othes are probably related to ergocrystine and ergocryptine by dehydration, dehydrogenation and/or amino acid substitution at R(1) of the peptide moiety.

Expression profiling of heat stress effects on mice fed ergot alkaloids

Fescue toxicosis affects wild and domestic animals consuming ergot alkaloids contained in tall fescue forage infected with the endophytic fungus, Neotyphodium coenophialum. When animals are consuming infected fescue (E+) forage during periods of elevated ambient temperatures (summer), a range of phenotypic disorders collectively called summer slump is observed. It is characterized by hyperthermia, with an accompanying decrease in feed intake, growth, milk yield, and reproductive fitness. Laboratory mice also exhibit symptoms of fescue toxicosis at thermoneutral (TN) temperature, as indicated by reduced growth rate and reproductive fitness. Our goal was to characterize the differences in gene expression in liver of mice exposed to summer-type heat stress (HS) and E+ when compared to mice fed E+ at TN temperature. Mice were fed E+ diet under HS (34 +/- 1 degrees C; n = 13; E+HS) or TN conditions (24 +/- 1 degrees C; n = 14; E+TN) for a period of 2 weeks between 47 and 60 days of age. Genes differentially expressed between E+HS versus E+TN were identified using DNA microarrays. Forty-one genes were differentially expressed between treatment groups. Expressions of eight genes were measured using quantitative real-time PCR. Genes coding for phase I detoxification enzymes were upregulated in E+HS mouse liver. This detoxification pathway is known to produce reactive oxidative species. We observed an upregulation of genes involved in the protection against reactive oxidative species. Key genes involved in de novo lipogenesis and lipid transport were also upregulated. Finally, genes involved in DNA damage control and unfolded protein responses were downregulated.

Identification of the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase that bridges the clavine and ergoline alkaloid pathways

Clavines and D-lysergic acid-derived alkaloid amides and alkaloid peptides are two different families of compounds that have the indole-derived tetracyclic metergoline ring system in common. Previous work has shown that D-lysergic acid is biosynthetically derived from clavine alkaloids. Recent cloning and analysis of the ergot alkaloid biosynthesis gene cluster from the D-lysergic acid peptide (ergopeptines)-producing Claviceps purpurea, has shown that it most probably contains all genes necessary for D-lysergic acid synthesis as well as those that encode the assembly of D-lysergic acid peptides, such as ergotamine. To address the role of the oxygenase genes of alkaloid-gene clusters, the only cytochrome P450 monooxygenase gene of this cluster was inactivated by disruption. The resultant mutant accumulated agroclavine, elymoclavine, and chanoclavine in substantial amounts but not ergopeptines. Feeding the mutant with D-lysergic acid restored ergopeptine synthesis; this suggests a block in the conversion of elymoclavine to D-lysergic acid. The gene was designated cloA (for encoding a clavine oxidase, CLOA). Retransformation of the mutant with the intact cloA gene also restored ergopeptine synthesis. These data show that CLOA catalyses the conversion of clavines to D-lysergic acid, it acts as a critical enzyme in the ergot alkaloid gene cluster, and bridges the biosynthesis of the two different families of alkaloids.

Effects of ergot alkaloids on food preference and satiety in rabbits, as assessed with gene-knockout endophytes in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne)

Neotyphodium species are fungal endophytes best known for their protection of grass hosts and production of bioactive metabolites including ergot alkaloids. Perennial ryegrass-Neotyphodium sp. Lp1 symbiota that have altered ergot alkaloid profiles (resulting from knockouts in two different endophyte genes) were fed, along with controls, to rabbits to test the effects of ergot alkaloids on food preference and satiety. Interestingly, rabbits dramatically preferred plants that were endophyte-infected but free of ergot alkaloids over endophyte-free plants (P = 0.01). Accumulation of ergot alkaloids of the clavine class counteracted the added appeal of endophyte-infected plants. In satiety tests, consumption of ergovaline (the ultimate ergot pathway product in wild-type endophyte), but not of several other ergot alkaloids, during an initial meal had a negative effect on subsequent rabbit chow consumption (P < 0.05). The data indicate that clavines were sufficient to reduce the appeal of endophyte-infected grasses, whereas only ergovaline reduced appetite.

Monitoring program for mycotoxin contamination in Uruguayan food and feeds

A pilot study for monitoring mycotoxin contamination in food and feeds was implemented by the Technological Laboratory of Uruguay (LATU) with the technical assistance of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The scope of the study was to determine the potential hazard posed by priority food-contaminant and feed-contaminant combinations. The choice of foods and contaminants to be monitored was based on the importance of the food in the total diet, the economic importance of the product and the potential health risk posed by the specific combination. The principal commodities selected were wheat, barley and rice. Also included were com, soy, dairy products, feeds, dried fruits and legumes, oil seeds, cocoa beans and organ meats. Mycotoxins analyzed (TLC/densitometry) were aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol (DON) and ergot alkaloids. The survey results (1993-95) showed differences in both incidence and levels of mycotoxin content for the principal commodities. Of all food/feed categories analyzed, feed had the highest values for all mycotoxins. Samples containing DON in levels above 1000 ng/g were found in all groups. Ochratoxin A was not detected in any of the samples. Rice and soy beans were the categories with lowest aflatoxin incidence. Uruguayan regulatory limits for all toxins analyzed were exceeded for wheat, barley and rice in less than 3, 9 and 7% of samples, respectively. The data on actual mycotoxin levels in different foods will help identify sources of contaminations and areas where control measures should be improved, enable better risk assessment by proper estimation of mycotoxin intake, assist in the establishment of tolerances and adequate guidelines, aid in the implementation of a national program and provide economic benefits by improving grain quality.

Ergot alkaloids in cereal products

The danger of ergot alkaloids has been well known for centuries. The origin and toxicology of these compounds have been clarified and flour mills assure us that they have mastered the problem technologically. Nevertheless, one can find food products with sometimes relatively high contents of these toxic alkaloids. Here we report on our experiences and results of an LC-MS/MS-method which we have developed to determine ergot alkaloids and which was applied to commercial products during the past two years.

Quantitative determination of five ergot alkaloids in rye flour by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry

A confirmatory method for detecting five ergot alkaloids, ergocristine, ergotamine, ergonovine, ergocornine and alpha-ergokryptine, in rye flour is described using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry detection by monitoring two transition reactions per analyte. The procedure entails a liquid-liquid extraction followed by a clean-up step using a C18 solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridge. An analogue compound, methysergide hydrogen maleinate, was used to assess both repeatability sample preparation and potential MS response fluctuations. The method was fully validated according to the European Union (EU) criteria. Detection and quantification limits of all analytes were calculated ranging from 7 to 11 microg/kg and from 23 to 37 microg/kg, respectively. Fifteen rye flour samples were investigated with the newly developed method, and none of them were above the current Swiss limits of 200mg/kg for total ergot alkaloids.

The influence of ergot-contaminated feed on growth and slaughtering performance, nutrient digestibility and carry over of ergot alkaloids in growing-finishing pigs

Diets containing 0, 1 and 10 g ergot (Claviceps purpurea) per kg, corresponding to mean total alkaloid contents of 0.05, 0.60 and 4.66 mg/kg (sums of ergometrine, ergotamine, ergocornine, alpha-ergocryptine, ergocristine, ergosine and their -inine isomers analysed by a HPLC-method), were each fed ad libitum to 12 pigs in the BW range of 30-115 kg to study the effect of ergot-contaminated feed on growth and slaughtering performance and the carry over of ergot alkaloids. Additionally, balance trials were conducted to investigate the digestibility of nutrients. Tendencies towards reduced feed intake and BWG were observed at a feeding level of 4.66 mg total alkaloids per kg diet. Typical symptoms of ergot poisoning were not observed. Heart and spleen weights showed significant linear increases. Differences in carcass quality due to dietary treatment were not detected. No genuine ergot alkaloids were found in physiological samples. The balance trials demonstrated a significantly decreased protein digestibility for the most highly supplemented diet.

Electrospray[+] tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry in the elucidation of ergot alkaloids chromatographed by HPLC: screening of grass or forage samples for novel toxic compounds

Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins generated by grass and grain pathogens such as Claviceps, for example. Ergot alkaloid-poisoning syndromes, such as tall fescue toxicosis from endophyte-infected tall fescue grass, are important veterinary problems for cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and chickens, with consequent impact on food, meat and dairy industries. Damage to livestock is of the order of a billion dollars a year in the United States alone. HPLC with UV and fluorescence detection are the predominant means of ergot alkaloid determination, with focus on quantitation of the marker compound ergovaline, although ELISA methods are undergoing investigation. These techniques are excellent for rapid detection, but of poor specificity in defining new or poorly characterized ergot alkaloids and related compounds. This paper demonstrates the facility of using electrospray(+) mass spectrometry with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) detection during chromatographic examination of ergot alkaloid standards of lysergic acid, lysergol, ergonovine, ergovaline, ergotamine, ergocornine, ergocryptine and ergocrystine by HPLC. Ergoline-8 position epimers could be separated on the gradient HPLC system for ergocornine, ergocrystine and ergonovine and appeared as shoulders for ergotamine and ergovaline; epimers generally showed different patterns of relative intensity for specific MRM transitions. There was reasonable correspondence between retention of standards on the 2-mm ESI(+)MS phenyl-hexyl-based reverse phase column and those on the 4-mm C18-based column. Since up to 10% of clinical cases involving toxin exposure display unidentified chromatographic peaks, 11 samples of feed components associated with such cases were studied with developed MRM methods to attempt elucidation of crucial components if possible. Ergotamine appeared in all, ergovaline appeared in five and ergocornine appeared in six; ergonovine, ergocryptine, ergocrystine and lysergol also appeared in several. In addition, molecular weights of compounds newly revealed by mass spectrometry suggested ergosine, ergostine and ergoptine in four samples, for which standards were not available. Dehydrated products of ergotamine, ergocrystine and ergocornine were discovered, along with dihydrogenated ergocrystine and ergocryptine in seven of the samples, and the issue was raised as to whether dehydration was strictly an instrument-derived artifact. Finally, five of the samples, along with fescue seed standard, evidenced one or more of 14 new ergot alkaloids ranging in size from 381 to 611 molecular weight and with key mass spectral characteristics of ergot alkaloids, specifically the pair of peaks m/z 223 and 208, corresponding to the ergoline ring system and its demethylated variant, respectively. It is anticipated that findings such as these will provide impetus to future development of analytical methodology for these heretofore relatively rare ergot alkaloid species.

Presumptive Gangrenous Ergotism in Free-Living Moose and a Roe Deer

Presumptive gangrenous ergotism in 10 moose (Alces alces) and one roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) is reported. Three of the moose came from a municipality in southeastern Norway where the disease occurred as a cluster in 1996. The other moose represented solitary or sporadic cases diagnosed in four municipalities in northwestern Norway between 1996 and 2004. Affected moose (seven calves, three yearlings) were found between October and June, showing distal limb lesions on one to three limbs. The lesions in the moose found during October and November presented as dry gangrene, whereas moose found between December and June presented with loss of the distal part of the limbs or open lesions close to sloughing. Four of the moose also had bilateral ear lesions affecting the outer third of the pinnae. A retrospective diagnosis of ergotism (June 1981) was made in a 1-yr-old roe deer from northwestern Norway showing loss of the distal part of all four limbs.

Effect of endophyte type on carcass traits, meat quality, and fatty acid composition of beef cattle grazing tall fescue

Fourteen Hereford steers were used to compare carcass traits, meat quality, and fatty acid composition of beef from cattle grazing tall fescue infected with either wild-type (E+; n = 6) or novel, nil ergot alkaloid (AR542; n = 8) endophyte for 209 d. Average daily gain, live weight, and HCW were greater (P < 0.05) for AR542 cattle than for E+. No differences in LM color or pH were observed between AR542 and E+. Steaks from E+ cattle tended (P = 0.10) to have higher L* and b* than those from AR542 cattle at 0 d of display. Ground beef from E+ cattle also had higher (P < 0.05) L* than AR542 cattle, with no differences in a* or b* at 0 d of display. Color changes during display did not differ for both steaks and ground beef from E+ and AR542. Lipid oxidation levels increased (P < 0.05) during simulated retail display, but they did not differ between endophyte treatments. Adipose tissues from E+ cattle had a higher (P < 0.05) percentage of SFA, and a lower (P < 0.05) percentage of MUFA than adipose from AR542 cattle. Ground beef and i.m. fat had higher (P < 0.05) concentrations of SFA, MUFA, and cis-9, trans-11 isomer of conjugated linoleic acid, and lower (P < 0.05) concentrations of PUFA and PUFA:SFA ratio than s.c. fat. The n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio did not differ among fat depots. Ergot-alkaloids were detected in s.c. adipose tissues, and alkaloid concentration was greater (P < 0.05) for E+ than AR542. Warner-Bratzler shear force values did not differ between endophyte types, but it decreased (P < 0.01) across the postmortem aging period. Conversely, sensory panel evaluation detected greater (P < 0.01) chewiness and lower (P < 0.05) juiciness for AR542 than for E+ steaks aged for 14 d. Although grazing cattle on tall fescue pastures infected with nil ergot alkaloid endophyte improved cattle performance, these results suggest that endophyte type has minor effects on carcass traits and meat quality of pasture-fed beef. Moreover, finishing cattle on tall fescue pastures showed the potential to enhance the fatty acid profile of beef from a human health perspective. Alkaloid concentration was greater (P < 0.05) in s.c. fat from E+ than AR542 (2.81 vs. 0.92 ppb; fresh-tissue basis). This is the first published report demonstrating the presence of alkaloids in beef tissues.