Preclinical Safety of Recombinant Human Interleukin-18

Recombinant human interleukin-18 (rHuIL-18) is currently in clinical trials for treatment of cancer. This report presents results of preclinical toxicity studies with rHuIL-18 in cynomolgus monkeys and recombinant murine IL-18 (rMuIL-18) in mice. The rHuIL-18 was administered intravenously in 1 or 2 different 5-day cycles at doses 0.3 to 75 mg/kg/day in monkeys. Decreases in red cell mass, neutrophil, and platelet counts, increases in monocyte and large unstained cell counts, and lymphoid hyperplasia in spleen and lymph nodes were mild, reversible, and likely related to the pharmacologic activity of IL-18. The only toxic effect was protein cast nephropathy, secondary to coprecipitation of administered IL-18 and Tamm-Horsfall protein in the distal nephron, that only occurred at 75 mg/kg/day. Other adverse effects of rHuIL-18 were related to strong immunogenicity in monkeys and were manifest only during a second dosing cycle. The rMuIL-18, at similar dosing levels and cycles in mice, resulted in reduced red cell mass, increased white blood cell counts, spleen and lymph node hyperplasia, and mild, reversible changes in intestine, liver, and lungs. Protein cast nephropathy occurred in mice at doses ≥30 mg/kg/day. In conclusion, preclinical safety studies showed that rIL-18 was well tolerated at pharmacologically active doses in both monkeys and mice.

Dexamethasone alters bronchoalveolar lavage fluid proteome in a mouse asthma model

BACKGROUND

Glucocorticoid is the most effective anti-inflammatory agent for asthma. The spectrum of protein targets that can be regulated by glucocorticoid in asthma is not fully understood. The present study tried to identify novel protein targets of dexamethasone in allergic airway inflammation by analyzing the proteome of mouse bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid.

METHODS

BALB/c mice sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) showed increased pulmonary inflammatory cell infiltration, airway mucus production and serum OVA-specific IgE level. Dexamethasone inhibited all these allergic airway inflammation endpoints. BAL fluid proteins were resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

The levels of 26 BAL fluid proteins were found to be markedly altered by dexamethasone. A family of chitinases (Ym1, Ym2 and acidic mammalian chitinase, AMCase), lungkine, gob-5, surfactant protein D and polymeric immunoglobulin receptor have been found for the first time to be downregulated by dexamethasone in allergic airways. The downregulatory effects were confirmed by immunoblotting and RT-PCR analyses. Dexamethasone was also shown to significantly inhibit lavage fluid chitinase bioactivity. In addition, dexamethasone promoted airway expression of vitamin D-binding protein, heptoglobin and alpha(1)-antitrypsin.

CONCLUSIONS

Among all these newly identified protein targets of dexamethasone, AMCase and gob-5 have been shown to be pro-inflammatory in asthma. Downregulation of AMCase and gob-5 may be considered as two novel anti-inflammatory actions of glucocorticoid in asthma.

Beneficial effect of vitamin E supplementation on the biochemical and kinetic properties of Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein in hypertensive and hyperoxaluric patients

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to assess the therapeutic efficacy of oral vitamin E supplementation on the biochemical and kinetic properties of Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein (THP) in hypertensive and hyperoxaluric patients.

METHODS

Newly detected hypertensives (n = 200) and stone formers (n = 200) were each subdivided into two groups. One group (n = 100) was administered the antioxidant vitamin E at 400 mg/day given as an oral supplement along with standard therapeutic drugs for hypertension and hyperoxaluria and the patients were followed for a period of 9 months. The other group (n = 100) did not receive vitamin E (placebo controls). Age and sex-matched controls (n = 100) were monitored simultaneously. THP was isolated from 24 h urine samples before and at the end of every third month during a period of 9 months from the vitamin E-treated hypertensive and hyperoxaluric groups. THP samples were also collected from control subjects, and at the end of the ninth month from placebo controls. The isolated protein was assessed for purity by SDS-PAGE. The purity-checked proteins were subjected to spectrophotometric crystallization assay, calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystal interaction studies, and biochemical analysis of sialic acid, thiol and carbonyl content. Plasma superoxide, hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide and vitamin E levels as well as superoxide dismutase and catalase activities were also monitored.

RESULTS

The THP from the hypertensive and hyperoxaluric subjects exhibited a significant promoting effect on the nucleation and aggregation phases and caused a concomitant increase in CaOx crystal interaction. The altered kinetic properties of THP in these subjects were strongly associated with increased carbonyl content and with decreased thiol and sialic acid contents. Oral administration of vitamin E to these patients caused near normalization of these biochemical alterations and satisfactorily restored the kinetic properties of THP to near normal activity. At the end of 9 months, THP isolated from placebo controls (hypertensive and hyperoxaluric) showed highly aggregated calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals as observed by light microscopy. In contrast, vitamin E-supplemented patients showed CaOx dihydrate crystals that were similar to control THP. There was an imbalance in the oxidant and antioxidant levels. For the oxidants, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical levels were increased, and for the antioxidants, there was loss of antioxidant enzyme activities and a decline in plasma vitamin E level in both hypertensive and hyperoxaluric patients. Supplementary antioxidant (vitamin E) corrected this imbalance to near normal conditions.

CONCLUSION

We hypothesize that the loss of THP inhibitory activity in the hypertensive and hyperoxaluric patients in a crystallizing medium is mediated primarily by oxidative damage to this protein. The possible occurrence of renal stones in essential hypertensive subjects, and the risk of recurrence in hyperoxaluric subjects, may be explained by oxidative damage to renal tissues that remained unchecked by standard drug therapies. The normalization of the kinetic properties of THP following vitamin E supplementation is in support of our hypothesis.

Effect of cyclosporin A on cell adhesion molecules and leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in experimental colitis

BACKGROUND

Cyclosporin A (CsA) is an immunosuppressive agent that is believed to act primarily through effects on T-helper lymphocyte function and proliferation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether modulation of leukocyte recruitment and expression of cell adhesion molecules contribute to the therapeutic efficacy of CsA in a model of experimental colitis.

METHODS

The therapeutic effects of CsA were assessed in mice with dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis. Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions were determined in colonic venules by intravital microscopy. The expression of cell adhesion molecules intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAd-CAM-1) was measured by the radiolabeled antibody technique.

RESULTS

Treatment with CsA (4 mg/kg/day) significantly improved the clinical course of colitis, decreasing weight loss, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, disease activity index, colon weight, and colonic shortening. Microscopic damage score, myeloperoxidase activity, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), and interleukin-6 in colonic tissue were significantly diminished by CsA. CsA also significantly reduced ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, but not MAdCAM-1, expression in colitic mice. TNF-alpha-induced ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression in primary cultures of human umbilical vein endothelial cells was reduced by co-incubation with CsA. The reduction in adhesion molecule expression was followed by a marked decrease in leukocyte adhesion in colonic venules of colitic mice.

CONCLUSIONS

CsA ameliorates experimental colitis in mice. Reduced adhesion molecule expression resulting from diminished pro-inflammatory cytokine production and from a direct effect of CsA in endothelial cells decreases leukocyte recruitment into the inflamed intestine, contributing to this protective effect.

Trefoil peptide TFF2 treatment reduces VCAM-1 expression and leukocyte recruitment in experimental intestinal inflammation

There is evidence for a beneficial effect of trefoil peptides in animal models of gastric damage and intestinal inflammation, but the optimal treatment strategy and the mechanistic basis have not been explored thoroughly. It has been suggested that these proteins may modulate the inflammatory response. The aims of this study were to compare the protective and curative value of systemic and topical trefoil factor family (TFF)2 administration in dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis and to investigate the relationship between the therapeutic effects of TFF2 and modulation of leukocyte recruitment and expression of cell adhesion molecules. Clinical and morphologic severity of colitis was evaluated at the end of the study (Day 10). Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions were determined in colonic venules by fluorescence intravital microscopy. The expression of cell adhesion molecules vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAdCAM-1) was measured by the dual radiolabeled monoclonal antibody technique. Pretreatment with TFF2 by subcutaneous or intracolonic (ic) route ameliorated the clinical course of colitis, and the luminal route had a significantly superior effect. This beneficial effect was correlated with significant reductions in endothelial VCAM-1 but not MAdCAM-1 expression and leukocyte adhesion to intestinal venules, which returned to levels similar to those of controls. In established colitis, ic TFF2 treatment did not modify the severity of colonic lesions. In conclusion, TFF2 is useful in the treatment of colitis, and topical administration is superior to the systemic route. Reduction in adhesion molecule expression and leukocyte recruitment into the inflamed intestine contributes to the beneficial effect of this treatment.

Expression of adhesion molecules by cultured spiral ligament fibrocytes stimulated with proinflammatory cytokines

Secondary cultures from murine spiral ligament (SL) fibrocytes were stimulated with proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and expression of various adhesion molecules was investigated. Cultures without cytokine stimulation did not show positive immunostaining for vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), or mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1). Although staining was also negative after stimulation with IL-1beta, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 staining was observed after the cells were stimulated with TNF-alpha. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis showed messenger RNAs for both VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 expression to be present after fibrocytes were stimulated with TNF-alpha. These data suggest that activated fibrocytes may cause inflammatory cells to persist in the SL. Given that SL fibrocytes may play a role in homeostasis of cochlear fluid and ion concentrations, prolongation of the inflammatory response could lead to fibrocyte damage that might ultimately result in cochlear malfunction.

A calcium-activated chloride channel blocker inhibits goblet cell metaplasia and mucus overproduction

We have previously shown that expression of a Ca2+-activated Cl- channel (mCLCA3 in mice and bCLCA1 in humans) is up-regulated along with goblet cell metaplasia and mucus overproduction in the lungs of interleukin 9 (IL9) transgenic mice, and in human primary lung cultures by IL4, IL13 and IL9. We show here that hCLCA1 expression in NCI-H292 cells specifically induces soluble gel-forming mucin production. Moreover, niflumic acid (NFA), a blocker of hCLCA1-dependent Cl- efflux, inhibits MUC5A/C production in these cells. NFA treatment during natural antigen-exposure, where mCLCA3 is greatly up-regulated in the lung, significantly reduces airway inflammation, goblet cell metaplasia and mucus overproduction in vivo. These data suggest that this Ca2+-activated Cl- channel plays an important role in epithelial-regulated inflammatory responses, including goblet cell metaplasia, and represents a potential novel therapeutic target for the control of mucus overproduction in chronic pulmonary disorders.

Mucosal immunity preservation with bombesin or glutamine is not dependent on mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 expression

BACKGROUND

Mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) is an adhesion molecule that directs naive T and B cells into Peyer's patches for sensitization and distribution to intestinal and extraintestinal sites. With no enteral stimulation, its expression drops rapidly in association with reduced Peyer's patch cell populations and increases rapidly with reinstitution of enteral feeding. Because both glutamine (GLN) and bombesin (BBS) preserve mucosal immunity, this study examined whether they preserve MAdCAM-1 expression.

METHODS

In 2 separate experiments, animals were randomized to IV cannulation with chow, total parenteral nutrition (TPN), and (experiment 1) 15 microg/kg BBS 3 times per day or (experiment 2) an isocaloric, isonitrogenous 2% GLN-supplemented solution. After 5 days of feeding, MAdCAM-1 expression in Peyer's patches, spleen, and intestine was measured using a dual radiolabeled monoclonal antibody technique.

RESULTS

MAdCAM-1 expression was not significantly improved from TPN levels either with BBS or GLN supplementation. Levels of MAdCAM-1 expression remained unchanged in non-Peyer's patch sites.

CONCLUSIONS

Although MAdCAM-1 is considered the gateway molecule for cell entry into mucosal immunity, this does not seem to be the mechanism for mucosal immunity preservation in nonenterally fed mice receiving bombesin or glutamine.

Using genomic resources to guide research directions. The arabinogalactan protein gene family as a test case

Arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) are extracellular hydroxyproline-rich proteoglycans implicated in plant growth and development. The protein backbones of AGPs are rich in proline/hydroxyproline, serine, alanine, and threonine. Most family members have less than 40% similarity; therefore, finding family members using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool searches is difficult. As part of our systematic analysis of AGP function in Arabidopsis, we wanted to make sure that we had identified most of the members of the gene family. We used the biased amino acid composition of AGPs to identify AGPs and arabinogalactan (AG) peptides in the Arabidopsis genome. Different criteria were used to identify the fasciclin-like AGPs. In total, we have identified 13 classical AGPs, 10 AG-peptides, three basic AGPs that include a short lysine-rich region, and 21 fasciclin-like AGPs. To streamline the analysis of genomic resources to assist in the planning of targeted experimental approaches, we have adopted a flow chart to maximize the information that can be obtained about each gene. One of the key steps is the reformatting of the Arabidopsis Functional Genomics Consortium microarray data. This customized software program makes it possible to view the ratio data for all Arabidopsis Functional Genomics Consortium experiments and as many genes as desired in a single spreadsheet. The results for reciprocal experiments are grouped to simplify analysis and candidate AGPs involved in development or biotic and abiotic stress responses are readily identified. The microarray data support the suggestion that different AGPs have different functions.

TNF-alpha induced endothelial MAdCAM-1 expression is regulated by exogenous, not endogenous nitric oxide

BACKGROUND

MAdCAM-1 is an adhesion molecule expressed in Peyer's patches and lymphoid tissues which is mobilized by cytokines like TNF-alpha and is a major determinant of lymphocyte trafficking to the gut in human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It has been suggested that both reactive oxygen and nitrogen metabolites participate in regulating adhesion molecule expression in response to TNF-alpha.

METHODS

To examine how exogenous and endogenous sources of NO modulate MAdCAM-1 induction by TNF-alpha, we pre-treated mouse lymphatic endothelial cells with either long or short acting NO donors prior to TNF-alpha-stimulation, and measured MAdCAM-1 induction at 24 h.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

DETA-NO, a long-acting NO donor, and SperNO, a rapid releasing NO donor both inhibited TNF-alpha-stimulated MAdCAM-1 expression in a concentration dependent manner. Both NO donors also reduced a4b7-dependent lymphocyte endothelial adhesion. Inhibition of endogenous NO production by either L-NAME, a non-selective NOS inhibitor, or by 1400 w, a selective iNOS inhibitor failed to induce, or potentiate TNF-alpha regulated MAdCAM-1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Exogenous NO donors may be beneficial in the treatment of IBD, while endogenous nitric oxide synthases may be less effective in controlling adhesion molecule expression in response to cytokines.

Secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC) stimulates integrin alpha 4 beta 7-mediated adhesion of lymphocytes to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) under flow

The attachment of leukocytes to the endothelium is a multistep process that depends upon a very rapid increase in the adhesive activity of leukocyte integrins. A pertussis toxin-sensitive pathway stimulates integrin-dependent lymphocyte adhesion to Peyer's patch high endothelial venules in vivo, but the factors responsible for activating this pathway have not been identified previously. We now report that secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (SLC) (also known as 6Ckine, Exodus-2, and thymus-derived chemotactic agent 4), a recently described CC chemokine that is expressed in Peyer's patches and lymph nodes, rapidly activates integrin-mediated lymphocyte adhesion. Immobilized SLC increased the adhesion of HUT-78 T cells and human PBLs to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1, a protein that is expressed on Peyer's patch and mesenteric lymph node high endothelial venules. This effect of SLC was seen in both static and flow chamber adhesion assays, was mediated by integrin alpha 4 beta 7, and was inhibited by pertussis toxin. The other CC chemokines tested did not increase adhesion to mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1. SLC had a greater effect on naive CD4+ T cells than on memory CD4+ T cells; CD8+ T cells, B cells, and NK cells were also responsive to SLC. SLC is likely to play an important role in regulating the recruitment of lymphocytes to Peyer's patches and lymph nodes.

Acute changes in urine protein excretion may predict chronic ifosfamide nephrotoxicity: a preliminary observation

PURPOSE

To evaluate proteinuria occurring early after ifosfamide therapy and to assess the use of changes in proteinuria in the prediction of severe chronic nephrotoxicity.

METHODS

One-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to characterize urine protein excretion in 12 children with solid tumours before and after the first course of ifosfamide treatment, and in 24 healthy children. Chronic nephrotoxicity was evaluated at 6 months after ifosfamide treatment and graded as none, mild, moderate or severe.

RESULTS

Urine from healthy children and from 10 of 12 patients before ifosfamide therapy showed a protein band with a molecular weight (95.4 kDa) corresponding to that of Tamm-Horsfall protein but no lower molecular weight proteins. After the first course of ifosfamide this 95.4-kDa protein was lost in six of ten patients with a concomitant appearance of a low molecular weight proteinuria (< 70 kDa) in eight. Tamm-Horsfall protein was lost in two of five patients who subsequently developed no or mild nephrotoxicity and in four of five patients who subsequently developed moderate or severe nephrotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Early subclinical changes in urine protein excretion after ifosfamide, manifested by a loss of Tamm-Horsfall protein excretion, may be predictive of subsequent chronic nephrotoxicity.

Cation-induced aggregation of cat Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein and its possible role in feline urolithiasis

The in vitro cation-induced aggregation properties of cat Tamm-Horsfall protein (cTHP), a urinary glycoprotein, were examined and related to the potential role of cTHP in feline urolithiasis. The aggregation assay involved adding either CaCl2, MgCl2, or NaCl to solutions containing purified cTHP, and then separating the aggregated cTHP by centrifugation. The concentration of cTHP remaining in the supernatant was quantified using a previously developed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The effect that buffer pH, cTHP concentration, and urea concentration had on cTHP aggregation also were examined. Of the three salts, CaCl2 consistently was most efficient at precipitating cTHP, while MgCl2 was slightly less efficient. At least ten times more NaCl than CaCl2 or MgCl2 was required for comparable cTHP aggregation. As the pH decreased, increasing concentrations of the salts were required to aggregate cTHP. Increased amounts of CaCl2 and MgCl2 also were required to aggregate cTHP when the urea concentration was increased. As cTHP concentration increased within the physiological range, lower concentrations of CaCl2 and MgCl2 were required to precipitate 50% of the cTHP. Several aspects of the in vitro aggregation properties of cTHP correlate closely with previously identified risk factors for feline urolithiasis, strengthening the theory that cTHP aggregation may be important in this disease.