Antemortem detection of Mycobacterium bovis in nasal swabs from African rhinoceros

Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection has been identified in black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros populations in Kruger National Park, South Africa. However, it is unknown whether M. bovis infected rhinoceros, like humans and cattle, can shed mycobacteria in respiratory secretions. Limited studies have suggested that rhinoceros with subclinical M. bovis infection may present minimal risk for transmission. However, recent advances that have improved detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) members in paucibacillary samples warranted further investigation of rhinoceros secretions. In this pilot study, nasal swab samples from 75 rhinoceros with defined infection status based on M. bovis antigen-specific interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) results were analysed by GeneXpert MTB/RIF Ultra, BACTEC MGIT and TiKa-MGIT culture. Following culture, speciation was done using targeted PCRs followed by Sanger sequencing for mycobacterial species identification, and a region of difference (RD) 4 PCR. Using these techniques, MTBC was detected in secretions from 14/64 IGRA positive rhinoceros, with viable M. bovis having been isolated in 11 cases, but not in any IGRA negative rhinoceros (n = 11). This finding suggests the possibility that MTBC/M. bovis-infected rhinoceros may be a source of infection for other susceptible animals sharing the environment.

Histopathological Investigations and Molecular Confirmation Reveal Mycobacterium bovis in One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicorns)

Mycobacterium bovis causes tuberculosis in dairy and wild animals. Presence of tuberculosis in animals poses a threat not only to their herd mates but also for public. No reports are available about the clinical, pathological, and molecular investigation of naturally occurring tuberculosis (TB) due to M. bovis in one-horned rhinoceros. One-horned female rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicorns) at the age of 41 years died in a public park in Pakistan. Postmortem and other investigations were carried out to know the cause of death. The present study describes necropsy, histopathology, and molecular-based confirmation of TB in a captive female rhinoceros that died of this infection. Clinically, the rhinoceros showed nonspecific clinical signs including anorexia, lethargy, dyspnoea, coughing, and sudden death. At necropsy, the trachea exhibited mild congestion and contained catarrhal exudate at the bronchial bifurcation. Macroscopic examination revealed characteristic tubercles on all parenchymatous organs. The lungs showed consolidation, grey hepatization, and contained granulomatous lesions packed with cheesy exudate. Histopathological examination showed severe pneumonic changes in the form of granulomatous inflammation consisting of lymphocytes, multinucleated giant cells, caseous materials, and mineralized foci surrounded by a fibrous capsule. PCR amplicon of 500 bp confirmed the presence of M. bovis in multiple hepatic and pulmonary tissue samples, as well as in uterine exudates. It was concluded that the presence of tuberculosis in rhinoceros may pose potential transmission risk to other animals and the application of practical tools to determine TB status in the rhinoceros is crucial.

Gut microbiome architecture of wild greater one-horned rhinoceros:a vulnerable species from Kaziranga National Park, India

Rhinoceros unicornis, also known as the greater one-horned rhinoceros (GoHR), is a vulnerable wildlife species found in the Indian subcontinent with an estimated global population of 3582, of which an estimated 2995 resides in India. The Kaziranga National Park of Assam is the home to ~80.56% of the GoH population in India. Recent advances in genetics and microbial studies underscored the importance of gut microbial symbiosis as a crucial factor for host metabolic health and environmental interaction, particularly for higher mammals. Alteration of the normal microbiome can also be an indicator of chronic disease and infection. Freshly voided dung samples from nine dung heaps of free ranging or wild GoH rhinoceros were collected from Kaziranga National Park for mapping the gut microbial architecture through 16S-metagenomic approach. In our sample, the GoH gut harbours 168.8±12.55 (SE) bacteria-specific OTUs belonging to 21 phyla of which the gram-negative Proteobacteria is the most abundant phyla. Other abundant phylas found in the GoH gut are Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Although the GoH rhinoceros gut can utilize fibrous plant by microbial fermentation, the aerobic, nonfermenting Acinetobacter (20.7%), Stenotrophomonas (17.8%) and Brevundimonas (9.1%) constitute about 50% of all identified genus. Functional prediction of the GoH microbiome reveals that>50% of the bacteria present are involved in metabolism followed by cellular processes and information processing. A significant proportion (>1%) are associated with different diseases. In summary, our study characterized bacterial communities of nine wild GoH to identify some unique features and its implication in disease and survival of GoH.

Environmental Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Unhealthy Tapirs in the Southern Yucatan Peninsula

Information about the effects of environmental degradation on the health of terrestrial forest wildlife is limited, especially for rare species. In this study, we analyse the influence of ecological factors such as landscape characteristics and seasonality on the health status of Baird's tapirs in Calakmul, Mexico. We collected georeferenced photographic records of healthy (n = 32) and unhealthy (n = 22) tapirs from 2008 to 2019 and characterized landscape composition around each record at three spatial scales (circular buffers of 1, 2 and 3-km radii according to Baird's tapir home ranges). Our logistic model building process consisted in selecting the best spatial scale for each landscape cover class, before including them along with distance to human settlements and seasonality in a full model. The model that best explained the occurrence of unhealthy tapirs included the percentage of agriculture within a 1-km radius. This study hints at the negative effect that land-use change to agriculture occurring in Calakmul might have on tapir health, with 95.45% of unhealthy tapirs recorded in such landscapes. Further studies should investigate the proximate determinants of tapir health in anthropogenic landscapes, which might be linked to stress or to contact with domestic animals.

The VetMAX™ M. tuberculosis complex PCR kit detects MTBC DNA in antemortem and postmortem samples from white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer)

BACKGROUND

Bovine tuberculosis and tuberculosis are chronic infectious diseases caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex members, Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, respectively. Infection with M. bovis and M. tuberculosis have significant implications for wildlife species management, public health, veterinary disease control, and conservation endeavours.

RESULTS

Here we describe the first use of the VetMAX™ Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) DNA quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) detection kit for African wildlife samples. DNA was extracted from tissues harvested from 48 African buffaloes and MTBC DNA was detected (test-positive) in all 26 M. bovis culture-confirmed animals with an additional 12 PCR-positive results in culture-negative buffaloes (originating from an exposed population). Of six MTBC-infected African rhinoceros tested, MTBC DNA was detected in antemortem and postmortem samples from five animals. The PCR was also able to detect MTBC DNA in samples from two African elephants confirmed to have M. bovis and M. tuberculosis infections (one each). Culture-confirmed uninfected rhinoceros and elephants' samples tested negative in the PCR assay.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest this new detection kit is a sensitive screening test for the detection of MTBC-infected African buffaloes, African elephants and white rhinoceros.

Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli from Humans and Black Rhinoceroses in Kenya

Upsurge of antibiotic resistance in wildlife poses unprecedented threat to wildlife conservation. Surveillance of antibiotic resistance at the human-wildlife interface is therefore needed. We evaluated differences in antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates from human and the endangered black rhinoceros in Lambwe Valley, Kenya. We used standard microbiological techniques to carry out susceptibility assays using eight antibiotics of clinical and veterinary importance. Standard PCR method was used to characterize antibiotic resistance genes. There was no difference in resistance between E. coli isolates from human and those from rhinoceros (U = 25, p = 0.462). However, higher resistance in isolates from humans was noted for cotrimoxazole (p = 0.000, OR = 0.101), ceftriaxone (p = 0.005, OR = 0.113) and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (p = 0.017, OR = 0.258), whereas isolates from rhinoceros showed higher gentamicin resistance (p = 0.001, OR = 10.154). Multi-drug resistance phenotype was 69.0% in humans and 43.3% in rhinoceros. Isolates from both species contained bla_TEM, tetA, tetB, dfrA1 and sul1 genes. Resistance profiles in the two species suggest potential for cross-transfer of resistance genes or exposure to comparable selective pressure and call for a multi-sectorial action plan on surveillance of antibiotic resistance at the human-wildlife interface. Genome-wide studies are needed to explicate the direction of transfer of genes that confer antibiotic resistance at the human-wildlife interface.

Gut microbiome differences between wild and captive black rhinoceros - implications for rhino health

A number of recent studies have shown the importance of the mammalian gut microbiome in host health. In the context of endangered species, a few studies have examined the relationship between the gut microbiome in wild versus captive populations due to digestive and other health issues. Unfortunately, the results seem to vary across taxa in terms of captive animals having higher, lower, or equivalent microbiome diversity relative to their wild counterparts. Here, we focus on the black rhinoceros as captive animals suffer from a number of potentially dietary related health effects. We compared gut microbiomes of wild and captive black rhinos to test for differences in taxonomic diversity (alpha and beta) and in functional diversity of the microbiome. We incorporated a more powerful metagenomic shotgun sequencing approach rather than a targeted amplification of the 16S gene for taxonomic assignment of the microbiome. Our results showed no significant differences in the alpha diversity levels between wild and captive black rhinos, but significant differences in beta diversity. We found that bacterial taxa traditionally associated with ruminant guts of domesticated animals had higher relative abundances in captive rhinos. Our metagenomic sequencing results suggest that unknown gut microbes of wild rhinos are being replaced by those found in conventional human-domesticated livestock. Wild rhinos have significantly different functional bacterial communities compared to their captive counterparts. Functional profiling results showed greater abundance of glycolysis and amino acid synthesis pathways in captive rhino microbiomes, representing an animal receiving sub-optimal nutrition with a readily available source of glucose but possibly an imbalance of necessary macro and micronutrients. Given the differences observed between wild and captive rhino gut microbiomes, we make a number of recommendations for potentially modifying captive gut microbiome to better reflect their wild counterparts and thereby hopefully improve overall rhino health in captivity.

Gut Microbiota and Phytoestrogen-Associated Infertility in Southern White Rhinoceros

With recent poaching of southern white rhinoceros (SWR [Ceratotherium simum simum]) reaching record levels, the need for a robust assurance population is urgent. However, the global captive SWR population is not currently self-sustaining due to the reproductive failure of captive-born females. Dietary phytoestrogens have been proposed to play a role in this phenomenon, and recent work has demonstrated a negative relationship between diet estrogenicity and fertility of captive-born female SWR. To further examine this relationship, we compared gut microbial communities, fecal phytoestrogens, and fertility of SWR to those of another rhinoceros species-the greater one-horned rhinoceros (GOHR [Rhinoceros unicornis]), which consumes a similar diet but exhibits high levels of fertility in captivity. Using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and mass spectrometry, we identified a species-specific fecal microbiota and three dominant fecal phytoestrogen profiles. These profiles exhibited various levels of estrogenicity when tested in an in vitro estrogen receptor activation assay for both rhinoceros species, with profiles dominated by the microbial metabolite equol stimulating the highest levels of receptor activation. Finally, we found that SWR fertility varies significantly not only with respect to phytoestrogen profile, but also with respect to the abundance of several bacterial taxa and microbially derived phytoestrogen metabolites. Taken together, these data suggest that in addition to species differences in estrogen receptor sensitivity to phytoestrogens, reproductive outcomes may be driven by the gut microbiota's transformation of dietary phytoestrogens in captive SWR females.IMPORTANCE Southern white rhinoceros (SWR) poaching has reached record levels, and captive infertility has rendered SWR assurance populations no longer self-sustaining. Previous work has identified dietary phytoestrogens as a likely cause of this problem. Here, we investigate the role of gut microbiota in this phenomenon by comparing two rhinoceros species to provide the first characterizations of gut microbiomes for any rhinoceros species. To our knowledge, our approach, combining parallel sequencing, mass spectrometry, and estrogen receptor activation assays, provides insight into the relationship between microbially mediated phytoestrogen metabolism and fertility that is novel for any vertebrate species. With this information, we plan to direct future work aimed at developing strategies to improve captive reproduction in the hope of alleviating their threat of extinction.

Rare gut microbiota associated with breeding success, hormone metabolites and ovarian cycle phase in the critically endangered eastern black rhino

BACKGROUND

Host microbiomes play a role in hormone production and subsequent fertility in humans, but this is less well understood in non-model organisms. This is of particular relevance to species in zoo-based conservation breeding programmes, as relationships between host microbiome composition and reproductive output may allow for the development of microbial augmentation strategies to improve success. Here, we characterise faecal bacterial communities of breeding and non-breeding eastern black rhino (Diceros bicornis michaeli) using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and quantify progestagen and glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations through enzyme immunoassays to identify such relationships.

RESULTS

We identified significant differences in black rhino gut microbiome composition according to ID, institution, breeding success and ovarian cycle phase. In particular, the gut microbiome during pregnancy and post-parturition was significantly altered. Around a third of bacterial genera showed more than ± 10% correlation with either progestagen and/or glucocorticoid concentration, and in general, microbial genera correlated with both hormones in the same direction. Through a combination of analyses, we identified four genera (Aerococcaceae, Atopostipes, Carnobacteriaceae and Solobacterium) that were significantly associated with breeding success, pregnancy and/or post-parturition, and higher faecal progestagen metabolite concentrations. These genera had a lower-than-average relative abundance in the gut microbiome.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that many members of the gut microbiome of black rhino are associated with hormone production and breeding success, and some members of the rare microbiota appear to be particularly important. Although the directionality of the relationship is unclear, the variation in gut microbiome communities represents a potential biomarker of reproductive health. We identified four genera that were associated with multiple indicators of reproductive output; these could be candidate probiotics to improve the breeding success of black rhino in zoo-based conservation breeding programmes. Further work is required to understand the efficacy and feasibility of this, either directly through microbial augmentation (e.g. probiotics) or indirectly via dietary manipulation or prebiotics.

Mycobacterium bovis in a Free-Ranging Black Rhinoceros, Kruger National Park, South Africa, 2016

In 2016, an emaciated black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) was found in Kruger National Park, South Africa. An interferon-γ response was detected against mycobacterial antigens, and lung tissue was positive for Mycobacterium bovis. This case highlights the risk that tuberculosis presents to rhinoceros in M. bovis–endemic areas.

Experimental Mycobacterium bovis infection in three white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum): Susceptibility, clinical and anatomical pathology

Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis is endemic in the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) population in the Kruger National Park and other conservation areas in South Africa. The disease has been diagnosed in a total of 21 free ranging or semi-free ranging wildlife species in the country with highly variable presentations in terms of clinical signs as well as severity and distribution of tuberculous lesions. Most species are spillover or dead-end hosts without significant role in the epidemiology of the disease. White rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) are translocated from the Kruger National Park in substantial numbers every year and a clear understanding of their risk to manifest overt tuberculosis disease and to serve as source of infection to other species is required. We report the findings of experimental infection of three white rhinoceroses with a moderately low dose of a virulent field isolate of Mycobacterium bovis. None of the animals developed clinical signs or disseminated disease. The susceptibility of the white rhinoceros to bovine tuberculosis was confirmed by successful experimental infection based on the ante mortem isolation of M. bovis from the respiratory tract of one rhinoceros, the presence of acid-fast organisms and necrotizing granulomatous lesions in the tracheobronchial lymph nodes and the detection of M. bovis genetic material by PCR in the lungs of two animals.

Mycobacterium pinnipedii: transmission from South American sea lion (Otaria byronia) to Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus bactrianus) and Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus)

Tuberculosis infections caused by Mycobacterium (M.) pinnipedii in a South American sea lion, Bactrian camel, and Malayan tapirs kept in two zoological gardens spanning a time period of 5 years are reported. The zoos were linked by the transfer of one tapir. Conventional bacteriological and molecular methods were applied to detect the pathogen. Spoligotyping and MIRU/VNTR-typing performed to assess the genetic similarity revealed identical molecular characteristics of the isolates from all animals involved. Anti-tuberculosis antibodies were detected using ELISA and a recently developed serological rapid test. The study shows that: (i) using molecular methods, the assessment of the genetic relationship of infectious agents helps to confirm the routes of infection, and that (ii) immunological tests may help to detect tuberculosis infections ante mortem more reliably and early. This would prevent the transfer of tuberculosis by asymptomatic animals.

Confirmation of the nomenclatural status of Malassezia pachydermatis

Malassezia strains from dogs and rhinoceros all proved identical using mole% G+C and nDNA/DNA reassociation experiments. The use of the name Malassezia pachydermatis, originally described for a strain isolated from a rhinoceros, is thus justified for non lipid-dependent strains of other sources.

Production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes during growth of anaerobic fungi from ruminant and nonruminant herbivores on different substrates

Three anaerobic fungi, two Neocallimastix strains isolated from a ruminant (sheep) and one Piromyces strain isolated from a nonruminant (black rhinoceros), were tested for their ability to ferment a range of substrates. Bagasse, filter paper cellulose, fructose, and wheat straw were good inducers of celluloytic and xylanolytic enzymes. These enzymes were produced constitutively by all three strains, although enzyme activities were generally lower, especially for both Neocallimastix strains, after growth on glucose and other soluble sugars. The isoenzyme patterns of extracellular enzyme preparations of Neocallimastix strains were influenced by the growth substrate.

Serological evidence of equine arteritis virus in donkeys in South Africa

This paper reports the first serological evidence of exposure of donkeys to equine arteritis virus. Seven hundred and thirty-four serum samples collected between 1989 and 1992 from donkeys in different areas of South Africa were examined for the presence of antibodies against this virus by a microneutralization test. Seventeen percent of serum samples tested positive. The distribution of seropositive animals varied from none in the western Cape Province and the Transvaal Highveld to 30% in the northern Transvaal. The country-wide distribution of serologically positive donkeys suggests a longstanding presence of the virus in South Africa.

Rhinoceros' rhinorrhea: cause of an outbreak of infection due to airborne Mycobacterium bovis in zookeepers

Seven of 24 zookeepers exposed to a Southern white rhinoceros infected with Mycobacterium bovis were presumably infected via aerosols generated in the cleaning of the barn for the rhinoceros. All demonstrated conversion by the intermediate-strength purified-protein-derivative skin test, but none had clinical illness. In certain occupational settings like zoos and abattoirs, exposure to M. bovis may be an occupational hazard, and routine periodic tuberculin screening should be performed.

Lutzomyia shannoni (Diptera: Psychodidae): a biological vector of the New Jersey serotype of vesicular stomatitis virus on Ossabaw Island, Georgia

The New Jersey serotype of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSNJ) is enzootic on Ossabaw Island, Georgia. Lutzomyia shannoni is the only phlebotomine sand fly present on the island and there is strong evidence that it is a vector of the virus at this site. This overview summarizes the studies that have been done on the island, reviews the evidence which confirms that L. shannoni is a biological vector of VSNJ, and discusses remaining unknown aspects of the epizootiology of VSNJ.

Fermentation of cellulose and production of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes by anaerobic fungi from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores

Four anaerobic fungi were grown on filter paper cellulose and monitored over a 7-8 days period for substrate utilisation, fermentation products, and secretion of cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes. Two of the fungi (N1 and N2) were Neocallimastix species isolated from a ruminant (sheep) and the other two fungi were Piromyces species (E2 and R1) isolated from an Indian Elephant and an Indian Rhinoceros, respectively. The tested anaerobic fungi degraded the filter paper cellulose almost completely and estimated cellulose digestion rates were 0.25, 0.13, 0.21 and 0.18 g.l-1.h-1 for strains E2, N1, N2, R1, respectively. All strains secreted cellulolytic and xylanolytic enzymes, including endoglucanase, exoglucanase, beta-glucosidase and xylanase. Strain E2 secreted the highest levels of enzymes in a relatively short time. The product formation on avicel by enzymes secreted by the four fungi was studied. Both in the presence and absence of glucurono-1,5-delta-lactone, a specific inhibitor of beta-glucosidase, mainly glucose was formed but no cellobiose. Therefore the exoglucanase secreted by the four fungi is probably a glucohydrolase.

Piromyces rhizinflata nov. sp., a strictly anaerobic fungus from faeces of the Saharian ass: a morphological, metabolic and ultrastructural study

A new species of strictly anaerobic chytridiomycete was isolated from dried faeces of the Saharian ass that had been stored for up to 150 days. Because of its monocentric thallus and uniflagellate zoospores it belongs to the genus Piromyces. It exhibits a high affinity for P. mae and P. dumbonica but differs from them in its morphological and ultrastructural characteristics. Its flagellar apparatus is similar to that of all previously reported fungi.

[Anthrax in Chad: a zoonosis that still exists today]

An epidemic of human and animal anthrax raged in Chad mainly in the Department of Chari Baguirmi from September to December 1988, infesting more than 50% of donkeys and horses. 716 human cases have been reported, with 88 deaths. Thanks to a geographical distribution of animal and human prevalence, one sees immediately the interdependency between sanitary state of live-stock and public health. An unusual means of transmission from donkey to donkey by insects as the vector is suggested to explain the intensity of animal epidemics. Two strains of B. anthracis were isolated and described. Systematic annual prophylactic inoculation of the live-stock is recommended, and also resumption of research to create a polyvalent vaccine for cattle plague/peripneumonia and anthrax.

The full-length nucleotide sequences of the virulent Trinidad donkey strain of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus and its attenuated vaccine derivative, strain TC-83

Nucleotide sequence analysis of cDNA clones covering the entire genomes of Trinidad donkey (TRD) Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus and its vaccine derivative, TC-83, has revealed 11 differences between the genomes of TC-83 virus and its parent. One nucleotide substitution and a single nucleotide deletion occurred in the 5'- and 3'-noncoding regions of the TC-83 genome, respectively. The deduced amino acid sequences of the nonstructural polypeptides of the two viruses differed only in a conservative Ser(TRD) to Thr(TC-83) substitution in nonstructural protein (nsP) three at amino acid position 260. The two silent mutations (one each in E1 and E2), one amino acid substitution in the E1 glycoprotein, and five substitutions in the E2 envelope glycoprotein of TC-83 virus were reported previously (B.J.B. Johnson, R.M. Kinney, C.L. Kost, and D.W. Trent, 1986, J. Gen. Virol. 67, 1951-1960). The genome of TRD virus was 11,444 nucleotides long with a 5'-noncoding region of 44 nucleotides. The carboxyl terminal portion of VEE nsP3 contained two peptide segments (7 and 34 amino acids long) that were repeated with high fidelity. The open reading frame of the nonstructural polyprotein was interrupted by an in-frame opal termination codon between nsP3 and nsP4, as has been reported for Sindbis, Ross River, and Middelburg viruses. The deduced amino acid sequences of the VEE TRD nsP1, nsP2, nsP3, and nsP4 polypeptides showed 60-66%, 57-58%, 35-44%, and 73-71% identity with the aligned sequences of the cognate polypeptides of Sindbis and Semliki Forest viruses, respectively. The lack of homology in the nsP3 of the viruses is due to sequence variation in the carboxyl terminal half of this polypeptide.

Keratinophilic fungi on the hair of cows, donkeys, rabbits, cats, and dogs from the West Bank of Jordan

The mycoflora of hair of 111 cows, donkeys, rabbits, cats, and dogs were analysed and the frequency of occurrence and the relative importance value of the different fungal species isolated were calculated. Total numbers of species 56, 45, 48, 23, and 11 were recovered from cows, donkeys, rabbits, cats, and dogs respectively. The majority of the keratinophilic fungi isolated were either well-known mycotic agents or have been recovered from various animal and human lesions. These comprised 87.8%, 66.7%, 61.4%, 59.3%, and 55.2% of the hair mycoflora in cats, dogs, rabbits, cows, and donkeys respectively. Seven species of dermatophytes were isolated: Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. verrucosum, Microsporum gypseum, M. nanum, T. ajelloi, and M. canis. Cats harboured the largest number of dermatophytes (5 species), followed by cows (4 spp), rabbits (3 spp), and donkeys and dogs (1 sp). The role of these animals in the persistence and transmission of pathogenic fungi is discussed.

Asinine herpesvirus genomes: comparison with those of the equine herpesviruses

Two previously unknown and distinct herpesviruses were isolated from donkeys. One, with the characteristics of a betaherpesvirus, was isolated from the leukocytes of an apparently healthy donkey, while the second, an alphaherpesvirus, was recovered from the nasal cavity of donkeys given high doses of corticosteroids, and caused rhinitis in two seronegative weanling donkeys when they were intranasally infected. Few, if any, restriction endonuclease fragments were shared by the donkey betaherpesvirus, equine herpesvirus 2 (EHV 2) or EHV 5, a second distinctly different equine betaherpesvirus, nor by the donkey alphaherpesvirus, EHV 1, EHV 4, or EHV 3. In Southern blot analysis the donkey betaherpesvirus showed low levels of sequence similarity to both EHV 2 and EHV 5, while the donkey alphaherpesvirus and EHV 1 shared a moderate degree of sequence similarity, less similarity with EHV 4 and very low level of sequence similarity with EHV 3. These two isolates appear prototypic of two previously unrecorded herpesviruses for which the names asinine herpesvirus 2 and 3 are suggested for the betaherpesvirus and the alphaherpesvirus respectively.

Enumeration of anaerobic bacterial microflora of the equine gastrointestinal tract

Samples from the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, as well as from the cecum and colon, were obtained from 11 mature grass-fed horses. Viable counts of total culturable and proteolytic bacteria were made on habitat-simulating media containing 40% clarified ruminal fluid. The mean pHs in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were 6.32, 7.10, and 7.47, respectively; the mean pH decreased to 6.7 in the hindgut. The acetate concentration increased along the length of the small intestine and was the only volatile fatty acid present in this gut segment. Molar proportions of acetate, propionate, and butyrate in the hindgut were 85:10:3. Differences in bacterial counts on habitat-simulating media containing equine cecal fluid or clarified ruminal fluid were negligible. Bacterial counts showed a substantial population in the duodenum (ca. 2.9 x 10(6) per g [wet weight] of sample), and this increased to 29.0 x 10(6) in the jejunum and 38.4 x 10(6) in the ileum. Proteolytic bacteria formed a high proportion of the total culturable bacteria, especially in duodenal samples. Counts of proteolytic bacteria per gram (wet weight) of sample were 3.0 x 10(6), 15.6 x 10(6), and 22.0 x 10(6) in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, respectively. There was a close relationship between lumenal and mucosal bacterial counts, although actual values were lower in mucosal samples. The mucosal bacterial population in the duodenum was high relative to the lumenal population. Although the comparison of bacterial populations in the hindgut of the horse and white rhino was limited to a single animal, the results were of interest. Counts were higher in the cecum than in the colon for both the horse and the white rhino.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Antibody to Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in wild mammals from southern Africa

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus is becoming increasingly recognized as an important human pathogen in southern Africa. In order to determine the role of wild mammals in the natural ecology of the virus, sera from 3,772 wild mammals of 87 species and from 1,978 domestic dogs collected in South Africa and Zimbabwe between 1964 and 1985 were tested for antibody to CCHF virus by reversed passive hemagglutination inhibition (RPHI) and by indirect immunofluorescence (IF). Antibody was found to be highly prevalent in large mammals in the Orders Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla such as giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis (3/3 positive), rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simium and Diceros bicornis (7/13), eland, Taurotragus oryx (59/127), buffalo, Syncerus caffer (56/287), kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros (17/78), and zebra, Equus burchelli (16/93). In small mammals antibody was found in the sera of 40/293 hares, 22/1,305 rodents, and 1/74 wild carnivores, but not in 522 primates, 176 insectivores, or 19 hyrax. Antibody was also found in the sera of 118/1,978 domestic dogs. The species of wild mammal in which antibody was distributed (with highest antibody prevalence in hares and large herbivores) reflects the feeding preference of immature and adult ticks of the genus Hyalomma, suggesting that Hyalomma sp. are the principal CCHF vectors in the wild.

Replication of alphaviruses in cultures of donkey monocytes

Representative strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) were compared for their ability to grow in cultures of unstimulated leucocytes and monocytes derived from donkey peripheral blood. Replication of epizootic and vaccine strains of VEEV, but not of enzootic strains was observed in this system. Only a minority of monocytes supported virus replication as detected by immunofluorescence, electron microscopy and infectious center assays. EEEV did not appear to replicate in this cell system although virus attached to and was internalized by monocytes.

Comparative analysis of the genomes of orthopoxviruses isolated from elephant, rhinoceros, and okapi by restriction enzymes. Brief report

Orthopoxviruses from different zoo-kept mammalian species including Elephas maximus (8 isolates), Ceratotherium simum (1 isolate), and Okapia johnstoni (2 isolates) were characterized by restriction enzyme analysis of the viral genome. The four enzymes BamHI, MluI, NcoI, and SalI were found to be optimal for strain differentiation.

Fungi on the hair of large mammals in Egypt

The frequency of occurrence of fungi in 260 hair samples of dog, donkey and cow collected from Veterinary Medicine Hospital of Assiut University was determined. Twenty-three species which belong to fifteen genera were collected. In low frequency, several dermatophytes (Chrysosporium, Microsporum, Arthroderma and Trichophyton) were found as well as some other fungal species pathogenic to man and animals (Aspergillus fumigatus, Stachybotrys chartarum, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis and Cephalosporium acremonium).

Preliminary survey of domestic animals of the Sudan for precipitating antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus

In a preliminary seroepidemiological survey a total of 780 serum samples derived from various domestic animals of the Sudan were examined for Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus precipitating antibodies. The incidence was approximately 34.3% in sheep, 33.2% in cattle, 22% in goats, 7.9% in camels and 4% in donkeys. The findings indicated that RVF is mainly prevalent in the rich savanna areas of the south as well as the irrigated areas close to the Nile in the north. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the detected antibodies were induced by a long-standing cryptically cycling infection and that resurgence of extensive epizootics is unlikely although limited outbreaks may occur. It is concluded that RVF virus circulates across the country in a south-north range along the Nile Valley with little or no extension to the drier lands to the east and west, and that ruminants are the primary species involved in virus maintenance. These species evidently serve as main amplifiers of infection during epizootics, but whether or not they also serve as sole virus reservoirs in inter-epizootic periods has yet to be determined.

Berne virus is not 'coronavirus-like'

In infected embryonic mule skin cells, Berne virus directs the synthesis of two main polypeptides (22K, 20K); in addition, virus-specific proteins with apparent molecular weights of greater than 200K, 80K to 120K, 32K and 17K were detected after radioimmune precipitation. The replication of Berne virus was reduced more than 1000-fold by actinomycin D, when the drug (0.1 to 1.0 micrograms/ml) was added during the first 8 h after infection; alpha-amanitin (25 micrograms/ml) produced a similar though less pronounced effect. U.v. preirradiation of the cells for greater than or equal to 5 s led to a dramatic decrease in the production of extracellular virus. The results presented support our suggestion that Berne virus is a representative of a new family of animal viruses.

Isolation of Campylobacter fetus subsp jejuni from zoo animals

Over a 1-year period, 619 fecal specimens from animals at the Denver Zoo were cultured for Campylobacter fetus subsp jejuni. The organism was isolated from 35 animals, including 12 primates, 2 felids, a red panda, 13 hooved animals, 6 birds, and 1 reptile. Of 44 cultured fecal specimens from diarrheal animals, 31.8% were positive for Campylobacter, whereas only 5.6% of 575 specimens from animals without diarrhea were positive (P less than 0.001). Among 25 isolates tested, 12 serotypes were represented; several of these serotypes are commonly associated with Campylobacter enteritis in human beings. Campylobacter fetus subsp jejuni was isolated from 8% of 75 wild pigeons trapped on the zoo premises during winter months and from 26% of 75 trapped during March and April (P less than 0.01).

Bacteriologic survey of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

A bacteriological survey was carried out on 30 black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) of which 23 were newly captured and seven were captive. A beta haemolytic Streptococcus, group L was found in skin lesions and various wounds, causing septicaemia and death in two animals. Staphylococcus aureus was found in 3 rhinoceros, and caused the death of one. The bacteria isolated often proved resistant to penicillin. Streptomycin is recommended for treatment. Sixteen other bacteria sp. were isolated, and apart from a Salmonella sp. none were considered to be specific pathogens.