An alkali-extracted neutral heteropolysaccharide from Phellinus nigricans used as an immunopotentiator in immunosuppressed mice by activating macrophages

A neutral heteropolysaccharide (PNANb) was isolated with alkali (0.1 M NaOH) from mycelia of Phellinus nigricans, and the structure, immunostimulating activity and some of the underlying molecular mechanisms of action of PNANb were explored in the current study. PNANb (14.95 kDa) predominantly consisted of Gal, Glc, and Man with minor Fuc. GC-MS and NMR analyses indicated that the backbone of PNANb was mainly composed of 6-α-Galp, 2,6-α-Galp with minor 3,6-β-Glcp, which was substituted with complex side chains at C-2 of 2,6-α-Galp and C-3 of 3,6-β-Glcp. Notably, PNANb (50 or 100 mg/kg) possessed immunoprotective effects in cyclophosphamide (Cy)-induced immunosuppressed C57BL/6 mice, which was supported by evidence including the enhancement of spleen and thymus indices, levels of serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM) and cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10), and macrophage activity. However, the immunostimulation effects of PNANb were decreased when macrophages were depleted, underscoring the essential role of macrophages in the beneficial effects of PNANb in Cy-induced immunosuppressed mice. Further investigations in vitro indicated that PNANb activated macrophages through MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways mediated by Toll-like receptor 4. Therefore, PNANb can serve as a prospective immunopotentiator in immunosuppression.

Phellinus igniarius polysaccharides induced mitochondrial apoptosis of hepatic carcinoma by enhancing reactive oxygen species-mediated AKT/p53 signalling pathways

Phellinus igniarius (PI) has various kinds of biological activities, such as antitumour activities, and polysaccharides are one of its main components. In this study, polysaccharides from PI (PIP) were prepared, purified, analysed for their structure and investigated for their antitumour activity and mechanism in vitro. PIP consists of 12138 kDa of carbohydrates containing 90.5 ± 1.6% neutral carbohydrates. PIP consists of glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose, D-fructose, L-guluronic acid, glucosamine hydrochloride, rhamnose, arabinose and D-mannoturonic acid. PIP can significantly inhibit HepG2 cell proliferation, induce cell apoptosis and also inhibited migration and invasion in a concentration-dependent manner. PIP increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased the expression of p53, and induced cytochrome c release into the cytoplasm to activate caspase-3. PIP is a promising potential candidate for the therapeutic treatment of hepatic carcinoma via the ROS-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis pathway.

Protoilludane-Type and Related Nor-Sesquiterpenes from Phellinus hartigii and Their Anti-Hypertrophic Activities in Rat Cardiomyocytes

Three nor-sesquiterpenes, phellinharts A-C (1-3), isolated from Phellinus hartigii, exhibited unprecedented protoilludane and cerapicane-type structures. The structures of compounds 1-3 were elucidated via spectroscopic analysis, quantum chemical calculations, and X-ray diffraction. Potential biogenic pathways involving demethylation, ring cleavage, and rearrangement were proposed. Compounds 1-3 displayed potent anti-hypertrophic activities with low cytotoxicity (CC50 > 50 μM) in rat cardiomyocytes, underscoring their therapeutic potential.

A dihydromyricetin-loaded phellinus igniarius polysaccharide/l-arginine modified chitosan-based hydrogel for promoting wound recovery in diabetic mice via JNK and TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway

The wound of diabetes has long-term excessive inflammation leading to wound fibrosis and scar formation. In the process of diabetic wound healing, good wound dressing is required for intervention. In this study, we designed a dihydromyricetin-loaded hydrogel (PCD) based on phellinus igniarius polysaccharide and l-arginine modified chitosan as an alternative material to promote diabetes wound healing. PCD had a uniform porous structure, good thermal stability, excellent mechanical properties, high water absorption, excellent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities and good biocompatibility and biodegradability. In addition, in the full-thickness skin trauma model of diabetes, PCD significantly inhibited the JNK signaling pathway to reduce inflammatory response, and significantly down-regulated the expression of TGF-β1, Smad2, Smad3 and Smad4 to directly inhibit the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway to accelerate wound healing and slow down scar formation in diabetes mice. Therefore, PCD has a broad application prospect in promoting diabetes wound healing.

Effect of the Combination of Clostridium butyricum and Mycelium of Phellinus igniarius on Intestinal Microbiota and Serum Metabolites in DSS-Induced Colitis

Clostridium butyricum (CB) and Phellinus igniarius (PI) have anti-inflammatory, immune regulation, anti-tumor, and other functions. This study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of CB and mycelium of PI (MPI) alone and in combination on colitis mice induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). Mice were randomly assigned to five groups: (1) control (CTRL), (2) DSS, (3) CB, (4) MPI, and (5) CB + MPI (CON). The weight of the mice was recorded daily during the experiment, and the length of the colon was measured on the last day of the experiment. The colons were collected for hematoxylin and eosin staining, colon contents were collected for intestinal flora analysis, and serum was collected for metabolite analysis. The results showed that compared with the DSS group, CB, MPI, and CON treatments inhibited the weight loss and colon length shortening caused by DSS, significantly increased the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and superoxide dismutase, and significantly decreased the concentrations of IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and myeloperoxidase. Gene sequence analysis of 16S rRNA showed that CB, MPI, and CON treatments changed the composition and structure of intestinal microorganisms. Metabolome results showed that CB, MPI, and CON treatments changed serum metabolites in DSS-treated mice, including dodecenoylcarnitine, L-urobilinogen, and citric acid. In conclusion, CB, MPI, and CON treatments alleviated DSS-induced colitis in mice by regulating intestinal flora and metabolites, with the CON group having the best effect.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Candidate Genes Associated with Mycelia Growth from a He-Ne Laser with Pulsed Light Mutant of Phellinus igniarius (Agaricomycetes)

A mutant Phellinus igniarius JQ9 with higher mycelial production was screened out by He-Ne laser with pulsed light irradiation, the mechanism underlying the higher mycelial production is still unknown. This study aims to obtain a comprehensive transcriptome assembly during the Ph. igniarius liquid fermentation and characterize the key genes associated with the mycelial growth and metabolism in Ph. igniarius JQ9. Our transcriptome data of Ph. iniarius JQ9 and the wild strain were obtained with the Illumina platform comparative transcriptome sequencing technology. The results showed that among all the 346 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), 245 were upregulated and 101 were downregulated. Candidate genes encoding endoglucanase, beta-glucosidase, cellulose 1,4-beta-cellobiosidase, glycoside hydrolase family 61 protein, were proposed to participate in the carbohydrate utilization from KEGG enrichment of the starch and sucrose metabolism pathways were upregulated in Ph. igniarius JQ9. In addition, three candidate genes encoding the laccase and another two candidate genes related with the cell growth were higher expressed in Ph. igniarius JQ9 than in the wild type of strain (CK). Analysis of these data revealed that increased these related carbohydrate metabolism candidate genes underlying one crucial way may cause the higher mycelia production.

Efficacy of Phellinus linteus extract on immunity enhancement: A CONSORT-randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial

BACKGROUND

Immunity is a major system that defends the human body from the outside. Recently, interest in foods related to immunity has been increasing.

METHODS

The purpose of this clinical trial was to determine the safety and efficacy of Phellinus linteus (PL) extract in improving immune function. A total of 30 participants were randomly assigned to 3 groups: the PL1000 group (n = 10) took 1000 mg of PL extract and 1000 mg of dextrin per day; the PL2000 group (n = 10) took 2000 mg of PL extract per day; and the placebo group (n = 10) took 2000 mg of dextrin per day. All participants took 2 capsules twice a day for 8 weeks. We measured their natural killer cell activity and cytokine levels in blood before and after consuming the clinical trial food. Variables were also investigated to evaluate safety, such as adverse reactions, vital signs, and abnormal findings. Student t test or the Mann-Whitney U test, a paired t test or the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, a chi-square test, analysis of variance, and Kruskal-Wallis test were conducted according to the characteristics of the data to compare the differences between each group before and after participants ate the clinical trial food.

RESULTS

The natural killer cell activity and interleukin-6 levels of the PL1000 group tended to improve compared to those of the placebo group. Immunoglobulin G1, immunoglobulin G2, and immunoglobulin M levels did not show significant changes, but tended to improve in the PL1000 and PL2000 groups compared to those of the placebo group. Both the Per Protocol and Intention to Treat populations had improved validation parameters. It is safe because no hazards were found in the safety assessment.

CONCLUSION

PL extract can help improve immunity. Evidences to conduct the main clinical trial is secured through this pilot study. A future large-scale main trial will be conducted based on this pilot study results.

Effects of Phellinus linteus extract on immunity improvement: A CONSORT-randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Immunity protects the body from external threats and prevents the development of cancer. Biological response modifiers extracted from natural sources are being actively studied, and the immunostimulatory and anticancer effects of various types of fungi have been reported. However, there are no previous clinical studies on the immune-enhancing effect of Phellinus linteus (PL). Lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity assay is a prerequisite in order to get approval for using PL as a raw material in functional supplements and medicines in Korea. However, due to the absence of precedent clinical trials, the use of PL in supplements has been hindered. but there is no precedent clinical trial using it. We conducted a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial to confirm the efficacy and safety of PL extract for the improvement of immunity using the lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity assay.

METHODS

A total of 98 subjects were enrolled and randomly assigned to 2 groups. Subjects in the PL and placebo groups received 1000 mg of PL extract and 1000 mg of dextrin per day, respectively (one capsule, twice every day for 8 weeks). The primary outcome measured was the activity of natural killer cells. Secondary outcomes were the levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-12, IgG1, IgG2, and IgM. Safety was evaluated using laboratory tests.

RESULTS

NK cell activity was significantly increased in the PL group compared to the placebo group (P < .05). Despite the absence of significant changes in secondary outcomes, there was a tendency for improvement in the PL group. PL extract-related adverse outcomes, particularly in liver and renal function, were not observed.

CONCLUSION

PL extract may improve immunity and is safe to be consumed orally.

Receptor-ligand affinity-based screening and isolation of water-soluble 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors from Phellinus igniarius

We developed an efficient combination method for extraction, biological activity screening, and preparation of 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors from Phellinus igniarius. 5-Lipoxygenase inhibitors were rapidly screened using ultrafiltration-liquid chromatography based on the receptor-ligand affinity. Parameters such as extraction time, extraction times, and temperature as well as liquid-solid ratio were optimized using response surface methodology to maximize the total yield of the three target compounds. Next, bioactive ingredients were isolated using high-speed countercurrent chromatography and semi-preparative liquid chromatography. Three active ingredients, phellibaumin E, protocatechuic aldehyde, and osmundacetone, were obtained via ultrafiltration-liquid chromatography. Subsequently, the potential anti-dementia effects of the obtained bioactive compounds were verified using molecular docking assays. The above-mentioned target compounds, with purities of 98.82%, 98.89%, and 99.51%, respectively, were separated using a two-phase solvent system consisting of n-hexane-ethyl acetate-ethanol-water (2.5:2:0.75:3, v/v/v/v) coupled with semi-preparative liquid chromatography.

Chitosan-modified Phellinus igniarius polysaccharide PLGA nanoparticles ameliorated inflammatory bowel disease

In many clinical studies, prebiotics have been used as adjuvant therapy for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Phellinus igniarius polysaccharide (PIP) possesses great anti-inflammatory and prebiotic activities. Herein, we developed an orally deliverable PIP-loaded chitosan-modified PLGA nanomedicine (CS-PIPP) to investigate its anti-inflammatory effect in vitro and in vivo. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis model was established to evaluate the preventive effect of CS-PIPP on IBD. This study characterized that CS-PIPP had a size of 288.7 ± 5.49 nm, positive zeta potential, and showed good stability over four weeks. The in-vitro study suggested that CS-PIPP had enhanced phagocytosis by macrophages, which could further significantly inhibit M1-like macrophages phenotype and regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory cytokines. The in-vivo study revealed that CS-PIPP prominently prevented intestinal inflammatory damage and protected the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Moreover, CS-PIPP increased the contents of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and positively regulated the gut microbiota. Specifically, CS-PIPP reduced enteropathogenic microorganisms while increasing the beneficial microbiota, including Lactobacillus and Akkermansia, which revealed the potential of CS-PIPP as prebiotics. Generally, CS-PIPP promoted the anti-inflammatory effect of PIP, so it could be regarded as a novel and potent nanoformulation to treat IBD.

Cyclohumulanoid Sesquiterpenes Induced by the Noncompetitive Coculture of Phellinus orientoasiaticus and Xylodon flaviporus

Microbial cocultivation has been applied as a strategy to induce the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites. However, most previous studies have focused on competitive interactions between test strains. During our LC-MS-based chemical screening of randomized cocultures of Basidiomycetous fungi, we discovered that the coculture of Phellinus orientoasiaticus (Hymenochaetaceae) and Xylodon flaviporus (Schizoporaceae) induces multiple metabolites, although they did not show any competitive morphology. Targeted isolation yielded three new sesquiterpenes (1-3) along with five known analogues (4-8). The structures of the isolates were determined by MS and NMR experiments as well as electronic circular dichroism analysis. LC-MS analysis suggested that cyclohumulanoids of illudane-, sterpurane-, and tremulane-type scaffolds (1-7) were produced by P. orientoasiaticus, whereas a drimane-type sesquiterpene (8) was produced by X. flaviporus. None of the isolates exhibited antifungal activity or cytotoxicity, and compounds 1-7 exhibited NO production of LPS-treated RAW276.4 cells in a range of 15.9% to 38.0% at 100 μM.

Cardioprotective 22-hydroxylanostane triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Phellinus igniarius

Seven undescribed 22-hydroxylanostane triterpenoids were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Phellinus igniarius, together with three known sterols. Their structures were assigned by extensive spectroscopic and HRESIMS data analyses. The absolute configurations of C-22 were determined by X-ray crystallography, chemical methods, and spectroscopic data comparison. Phellinol G was a 25,26,27-trinorlanostane triterpenoid glycoside. 22S/22R-25,26,27- Trinorlanosta-8-en-3β,22,24-triols with the same side chain as that of phellinol G were stereoselectively synthesized from commercial lanosterol for the first time. The key step involved Sharpless asymmetrical epoxidation. Phellinols A, B, and F showed cardioprotective activity against oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation injury in H9c2 cells at a concentration of 20 μM.

Extracts of Phellinus linteus, Bamboo (Sasa senanensis) Leaf and Chaga Mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) Exhibit Antitumor Activity through Activating Innate Immunity

Natural products have attracted great interest for some time as alternative methods against cancers by fulfilling immunomodulating properties. In this study, we investigated the activity of hot water extracts (120 °C, >30 min) of Phellinus linteus, fresh leaves of Kumaizasa bamboo and Chaga mushroom which we called MeshimaMax, for cancer prevention and treatment by using different solid tumor models. In the implanted mouse sarcoma S180 tumor, MeshimaMax treatment significantly inhibited tumor growth when it was applied at the early stage of tumor inoculation. The effect was further confirmed by using carcinogen induced tumors, i.e., azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced mouse colon cancer and 7,12-dimethylbenz anthracene (DMBA) induced rat breast cancer. In both cases the occurrences of tumors were remarkably suppressed by administration of MeshimaMax which consists of three components above. More importantly, when MeshimaMax was combined with an anticancer chemotherapeutic drug, the therapeutic effect was remarkably improved. In vitro studies showed that when MeshimaMax was applied to mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells the phagocytosis of macrophages was significantly activated, which was evaluated by using living yeast cells as well as synthetic nanoparticles. A cytotoxicity assay showed the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) was higher than 1 mg/mL and normal cells were 2–3 times more tolerant to MeshimaMax than cancer cells. These findings suggest the potential application of MeshimaMax for cancer prevention and as supplement regimen for anticancer chemotherapy, probably functioning through activation of innate immunity, which may benefit cancer patients as an alternative supplement.

A clinical pilot study to evaluate the efficacy of oral intake of phellinus linteus (sanghuang) extract on knee joint and articular cartilage: Study protocol clinical trial (SPIRIT Compliant)

BACKGROUND

Knee osteoarthritis (KOA) is the most common form of degenerative arthritis. We used Phellinus linteus (PL), which has been well-known anti-inflammatory function. In this study, we will evaluate if PL extract improves symptoms with KOA.

METHODS

This study will be an 8-week single-center randomized controlled double-blind clinical trial. Total of 24 subjects with KOA will be enrolled and they will be divided into 3 groups, PL 1,000 mg, PL 1,500 mg and placebo. Subjects will be followed up every 4 weeks with efficacy and safety at the 2nd and 3rd visits. All subjects should maintain a dosage schedule for this protocol. The primary outcome will be assessed with the Korean version of the Western Ontario and McMasters Universities. And the secondary outcomes will be measured using the visual analog scale, quality of life scale (EQ-5D-3L), ESR, C-reactive protein, and C-telopeptide of type-II collagen. Statistical analysis will be performed on the principle of full analysis set.

DISCUSSION

This study has inclusion and exclusion criteria and a well-controlled intervention. This clinical trial is the first step to assess the efficacy and safety of PL in patients with KOA. This study will make an important contribution to the literature and aid follow-up research into the use of PL in KOA.

Efficacy of Phellinus linteus (sanghuang) extract for improving immune functions: Study protocol for a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled pilot trial

BACKGROUND

With the increase in the prevalence of chronic diseases, enhancing immunity has become an important challenge. Health functional foods, such as Phellitus linteus (PL), are known to improve immune function. In previous laboratory studies, it has been reported that PL has anticancer activities. In this study, we will evaluate if PL improves immune functions in adults with reduced immunity and identify its effects on immunity factors.

METHODS

This study will be a single-center, randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled trial. Study participants will be randomly allocated to 3 experimental groups: those taking PL 1000 mg, PL 2000 mg, or placebo. Total duration of the clinical trial will be 8 to 10 weeks. Study participants will have follow-up visits every 4 weeks and the effect and safety will be assessed at the second and third visits. All participants will be asked to maintain a dosage schedule for this protocol. The primary outcome will be natural killer (NK) cell activity and the secondary outcomes will include peripheral white blood cell (WBC) count; levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, and interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6, and IL-12 to assess autoimmune reactivity; and levels of immunoglobulin (Ig)G1, IgG2, and Immunoglobulin M (IgM) to assess allergic activity. Repeated measure analysis will be used to measure primary efficacy based on full analysis set.

DISCUSSION

This study has limited inclusion and exclusion criteria and a well-controlled intervention. It will be the first randomized controlled trial to assess the efficacy and safety of PL in adults with reduced immunity. This study will provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the immune-stimulating effects of PL and lay the groundwork for further studies.

Hair Growth Promoting Effect of 4HGF Encapsulated with PGA Nanoparticles (PGA-4HGF) by β-Catenin Activation and Its Related Cell Cycle Molecules

Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA)-based nanoparticles draw remarkable attention as drug delivery agents due to their controlled release characteristics, low toxicity, and biocompatibility. 4HGF is an herbal mixture of Phellinus linteus grown on germinated brown rice, Cordyceps militaris grown on germinated soybeans, Polygonum multiflorum, Ficus carica, and Cocos nucifera oil. Here, we encapsulated 4HGF within PGA-based hydrogel nanoparticles, prepared by simple ionic gelation with chitosan, to facilitate its penetration into hair follicles (HFs). In this study, we report the hair promoting activity of 4HGF encapsulated with PGA nanoparticles (PGA-4HGF) and their mechanism, compared to 4HGF alone. The average size of spherical nanoparticles was ~400 nm in diameter. Continuous release of PGA-4HGF was observed in a simulated physiological condition. As expected, PGA-4HGF treatment increased hair length, induced earlier anagen initiation, and elongated the duration of the anagen phase in C57BL/6N mice, compared with free 4HGF treatment. PGA-4HGF significantly increased dermal papilla cell proliferation and induced cell cycle progression. PGA-4HGF also significantly increased the total amount of β-catenin protein expression, a stimulator of the anagen phase, through induction of cyclinD1 and CDK4 protein levels, compared to free 4HGF treatment. Our findings underscore the potential of PGA nanocapsules to efficiently deliver 4HGF into HFs, hence promoting hair-growth. Therefore, PGA-4HGF nanoparticles may be promising therapeutic agents for hair growth disorders.

Potential Impact of Phellinus linteus on Adherence to Adjuvant Treatment After Curative Resection of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: Outcomes of a Propensity Score-Matched Analysis

BACKGROUND

Surgical resection followed by adjuvant chemotherapy is the only therapeutic option in pancreatic cancer. However, there is limited research evaluating methods of improving adherence to adjuvant treatment after curative resection.

METHODS

From January 1995 to December 2014, 323 patients with pancreatic cancer who underwent pancreatectomy at the Severance Hospital were enrolled in this study. We retrospectively analyzed clinicopathologic factors with propensity score matching method.

RESULTS

The final study population was 217, after excluding patients undergoing neoadjuvant treatment or palliative resection, those who died within 30 days after operation, and those lost to follow-up after discharge. Among them, 161 received adjuvant treatment after curative resection. Cox's proportional hazard models revealed that nodal metastasis, perioperative transfusion, and completion of adjuvant treatment were significantly correlated with cancer recurrence and cancer-related death ( P < .05). Phellinus linteus (PL) medication was the only significant predictor for completion of adjuvant treatment after curative resection in logistic regression analysis ( P = .039). Disease-free and overall survival of the PL medication group were significantly higher than the no PL medication group ( P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

PL medication potentially contributed to long-term oncologic outcomes by increasing patients' adherence to postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy, which resulted from PL medication associated with low toxicity of chemotherapy.

3,4-Dihydroxybenzalactone Suppresses Human Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma Cells Metastasis via Suppression of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition, ROS-Mediated PI3K/AKT/MAPK/MMP and NFκB Signaling Pathways

3,4-Dihydroxybenzalactone (DBL) was isolated from Phellinus linteus (PL), which is a folk medicine possessing various physiological effects. In this study, we used highly metastatic A549 cells to investigate efficacy of DBL inhibition of cancer metastasis and possible mechanisms. The results revealed DBL inhibited migratory and invasive abilities of cancer cells at noncytotoxic concentrations. We found DBL suppressed enzymatic activities, protein expression, and RNA levels of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. Western blot results showed DBL decreased phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, phosphorylation status of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/paxillin, which correlated with cell migratory ability. DBL also affected epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related biomarkers. In addition, DBL enhanced cytoprotective effects through elevated antioxidant enzymes including heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Moreover, DBL influenced the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NFκB), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), Snail, and Slug in A549 cells. Taken together, these results suggested that treatment with DBL may act as a potential candidate to inhibit lung cancer metastasis by inhibiting MMP-2 and -9 via affecting PI3K/AKT, MAPKs, FAK/paxillin, EMT/Snail and Slug, Nrf2/antioxidant enzymes, and NFκB signaling pathways.

Ionone Derivatives from the Mycelium of Phellinus linteus and the Inhibitory Effect on Activated Rat Hepatic Stellate Cells

Three new γ-ionylideneacetic acid derivatives, phellinulins A-C (1-3), were characterized from the mycelium extract of Phellinus linteus. The chemical structures were established based on the spectroscopic analysis. In addition, phellinulin A (1) was subjected to the examination of effects on activated rat hepatic stellate cells and exhibited significant inhibition of hepatic fibrosis.

CARI III inhibits tumor growth in a melanoma-bearing mouse model through induction of G0/G1 cell cycle arrest

Mushroom-derived natural products have been used to prevent or treat cancer for millennia. In this study, we evaluated the anticancer effects of CARI (Cell Activation Research Institute) III, which consists of a blend of mushroom mycelia from Phellinus linteus grown on germinated brown rice, Inonotus obliquus grown on germinated brown rice, Antrodia camphorata grown on germinated brown rice and Ganoderma lucidum. Here, we showed that CARI III exerted anti-cancer activity, which is comparable to Dox against melanoma in vivo. B16F10 cells were intraperitoneally injected into C57BL6 mice to develop solid intra-abdominal tumors. Three hundred milligrams of the CARI III/kg/day p.o. regimen reduced tumor weight, comparable to the doxorubicin (Dox)-treated group. An increase in life span (ILS% = 50.88%) was observed in the CARI III-administered group, compared to the tumor control group. CARI III demonstrates anti-proliferative activity against B16F10 melanoma cells through inducing G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. CARI III inhibits the expression of cyclin D1, CDK4 and CDK2 and induces p21. Therefore, CARI III could be a potential chemopreventive supplement to melanoma patients.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Phellinus linteus grown on germinated brown rice on dextran sodium sulfate-induced acute colitis in mice and LPS-activated macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE AND AIM OF THE STUDY

Phellinus linteus is a herb used in traditional Asian medicine to treat stomachache, inflammation, and tumors. Recent studies show that the extract of Phellinus linteus has anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities. However, Phellinus linteus extract has limitation of high cost and limited availability because of supply shortage. Here, we grew Phellinus linteus on germinated brown rice to address the issue of supply shortage and investigated anti-inflammatory effect in vivo as well as in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Phellinus linteus grown on germinated brown rice (PBR) were extracted using filtration steps, which included γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The PBR (200, 500mg/kg/day) was applied into the mouse model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells. We used sulfasalazine as a reference drug. In addition, mechanism related to anti-inflammatory was investigated by Western blotting.

RESULTS

In the mouse model of DSS-induced colitis, PBR ameliorated the pathological characteristics of colitis such as shortening of colon length and improved the disease activity index score. In addition, we showed that PBR reduced the expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in colitis. Western blotting showed that PBR decreased the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) proteins. Further, PBR treatment reduced the expression of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (e.g., extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) and p38) in the mouse model of DSS-induced colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment of RAW 264.7 macrophages with a combination of PBR and LPS showed a significant concentration-dependent inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production. In addition, we determined the ability of PBR to reduce the iNOS and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α expression. PBR inhibited the expression of iNOS, NF-κB, and Cox-2 proteins in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. This study presents the potential use of PBR as a drug candidate against colitis.

Phellinus linteus mushroom protects against tacrine-induced mitochondrial impairment and oxidative stress in HepG2 cells

Tacrine (THA) was the first drug licensed for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Unfortunately, reversible hepatotoxicity is evident in about 30% of patients and limits its clinical use. The intracellular mechanisms have not yet been elucidated. Phellinus linteus (PL) is a mushroom that has long been used as a folk medicine. In our previous study, we found that PL could decrease the reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in HepG2 cells. Presently, protective effects of PL on tacrine-induced ROS formation and mitochondria dysfunction were evaluated. The results showed that PL significantly reduced tacrine-induced ROS production, disruption of ΔΨm, 8-OHdG formation in mitochondrial DNA, and cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. These data suggest that PL could attenuate the cytotoxicity and mitochondria dysfunction induced by tacrine in HepG2 cells. The protection is probably mediated by an antioxidant protective mechanism. Consumption of PL may be a plausible way to prevent tacrine-induced hepatotoxicity.

[Decreasing toxicity and synergistic effects of intracellular and extracellular polysaccharides from Phellinus igniarius to tumor-bearing mice]

To study the toxicity-decreasing and synergistic effect of intracellular and extracellular polysaccharides from Phellinus igniarius on S180 mice. The PIP and PIE were extracted from the products of liquid submerged fermentation of P. igniarius. Transplanting S180 mice tumor models were established so as to observe the changes in tumor inhibiting rate, indexes of the spleen and thymus, body weight, peripheral blood cells and IFN-gamma levels when CTX was used alone and when used in combination with the PIP and PIE from P. igniarius. The results indicate that the PIP and PIE from P. igniarius can increase the activity of body immunity, attenuate the toxicity of CTX as well, and improve the anti-tumor effects.

Protein-bound polysaccharide from Phellinus linteus inhibits tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis and alters Wnt/β-catenin in SW480 human colon cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Polysaccharides extracted from the Phellinus linteus (PL) mushroom are known to possess anti-tumor effects. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the anti-tumor properties of PL remain to be explored. Experiments were carried out to unravel the anticancer effects of PL.

METHODS

The anti-cancer effects of PL were examined in SW480 colon cancer cells by evaluating cell proliferation, invasion and matrix metallo-proteinase (MMP) activity. The anti-angiogenic effects of PL were examined by assessing human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation and capillary tube formation. The in vivo effect of PL was evaluated in an athymic nude mouse SW480 tumor engraft model.

RESULTS

PL (125-1000 μg/mL) significantly inhibited cell proliferation and decreased β-catenin expression in SW480 cells. Expression of cyclin D1, one of the downstream-regulated genes of β-catenin, and T-cell factor/lymphocyte enhancer binding factor (TCF/LEF) transcription activity were also significantly reduced by PL treatment. PL inhibited in vitro invasion and motility as well as the activity of MMP-9. In addition, PL treatment inhibited HUVEC proliferation and capillary tube formation. Tumor growth of SW480 cells implanted into nude mice was significantly decreased as a consequence of PL treatment, and tumor tissues from treated animals showed an increase in the apoptotic index and a decrease in β-catenin expression. Moreover, the proliferation index and microvessel density were significantly decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that PL suppresses tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis through the inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in certain colon cancer cells.

Orally administered mycelial culture of Phellinus linteus exhibits antitumor effects in hepatoma cell-bearing mice

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anticancer effect of a mycelial culture from Phellinus linteus PL-7 (MCPL-7) and to elucidate its potential mechanism in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SCID CB-17 mice received a transplant of Hep3B cells followed by daily MCPL-7 administrations for 8 weeks. Following tumor implantation, groups C-E were subcutaneously administered 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, or 250 mg/kg MCPL-7 powder per day, respectively, for 8 weeks. Groups A and B received saline solution subcutaneously for 8 weeks.

RESULTS

MCPL-7 administration induced a significant reduction in tumor size and was associated with a significant increase in T cell numbers; IL-12, IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion; NK cell activity; and phagocytic ability. Therefore, increased numbers of CD4(+) cells could have been caused by greater numbers of dendritic cells and macrophages in the spleen. Furthermore, the activation of dendritic cells and macrophages resulted in increased IL-12 secretion, which could upregulate NK cell activation. The increased secretion of IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α enhanced the activity and phagocytic ability of NK cells. Thus, MCPL-7 may provide a potential therapeutic approach for both immunomodulatory and antitumor effects.

Inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1beta by hispidin derivatives isolated from the fruiting body of Phellinus linteus

Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1beta (PTP1beta) acts as a negative regulator of insulin signaling. Selective inhibition of PTP1beta has served as a potential drug target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. We evaluated the inhibitory effect of Phellinus linteus against PTP1beta as part of our ongoing search for natural therapeutic and preventive agents for diabetes mellitus. Fractions of the P. linteus extract were found to exhibit significant inhibitory activities against PTP1beta. In an attempt to identify bioactive components, we isolated, from the most active ethyl acetate fraction, five hispidin derivatives (phelligridimer A, davallialactone, hypholomine B, interfungins A, and inoscavin A) and four phenolic compounds (protocatechuic acid, protocatechualdehyde, caffeic acid, and ellagic acid). The chemical structures of these compounds were elucidated from spectroscopic evidence and by comparison with published data. All the compounds strongly inhibited PTP1beta activity in an in vitro assay; their IC50 values ranged from 9.0 +/- 0.01 to 58.2 +/- 0.3 microM. Our results indicated that the hispidin skeleton may be an important moiety for inhibitory activity of the above compounds against PTP1beta. Thus, hispidin derivatives could be a potent new class of natural PTP1beta inhibitors.

The ethyl acetate extract of PGP (Phellinus linteus grown on Panax ginseng) suppresses B16F10 melanoma cell proliferation through inducing cellular differentiation and apoptosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phellinus linteus and Panax ginseng have been widely used as traditional herbal medicines to treat various diseases including cancer in East Asia.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study sought to investigate the possible mechanism in anti-proliferative effect of Phellinus linteus that was grown on Panax ginseng (PGP) on B16F10 melanoma cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-proliferative effect of PGP on B16F10 was evaluated by CCK-8 assays. Apoptotic cells were detected by flow cytometry analysis. The proteins involved in apoptosis and cellular differentiation were assessed by immunoblot analysis. Ginsenosides contents of PG or PGP were analyzed using HPLC.

RESULTS

The ethyl acetate fraction (EtOAc) of PGP exhibited the strongest anti-proliferative activity among PGP fractions (butanol or water) on B16F10 cells. PGP EtOAc extract showed stronger inhibitory effect than Panax ginseng (PG) or Phellinus linteus (PL) EtOAc extract on B16F10 melanoma cell proliferation. PGP EtOAc extract induced the dendrite-like structures and the melanin production in B16F10 cells. PGP EtOAc extract increased a sub-G1 cell population through inducing p53/p21 and activated caspase-8 protein expression in B16F10 cells. Notably, PGP EtOAc extract contained ginsenosides Rd, Rg3, Rb2, Rg1 and Rb1 more than PG EtOAc extract. Rd and Rg3 significantly inhibited B16F10 cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that PGP EtOAc extract inhibits B16F10 cell proliferation through inducing apoptosis and cellular differentiation.

Anti-angiogenic activity of methanol extract of Phellinus linteus and its fractions

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of MeOH extract of PL (PLME) and its fractions on angiogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PLME and its subsequent fractions (methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and aqueous fractions) were evaluated in vitro. Specifically, the anti-angiogenic activities of PLME and its fractions were investigated by measuring their effects on the proliferation, migration, tube formation and phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR)-2 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In addition, the in vivo Matrigel plug model was applied to evaluate new vessel formation.

RESULTS

The results revealed that PLME and its subsequent fractions, except for the aqueous fraction, led to significant inhibition of the proliferation, migration, tube formation and VEGFR-2 phosphorylation of HUVECs as well as in vivo angiogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate the potential for the use of PLME in pathological situations involving stimulated angiogenesis, such as inflammation and tumor development.

DHP-derivative and low oxygen tension effectively induces human adipose stromal cell reprogramming

BACKGROUND AND METHODS

In this study, we utilized a combination of low oxygen tension and a novel anti-oxidant, 4-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-derivative (DHP-d) to directly induce adipose tissue stromal cells (ATSC) to de-differentiate into more primitive stem cells. De-differentiated ATSCs was overexpress stemness genes, Rex-1, Oct-4, Sox-2, and Nanog. Additionally, demethylation of the regulatory regions of Rex-1, stemnesses, and HIF1alpha and scavenging of reactive oxygen species were finally resulted in an improved stem cell behavior of de-differentiate ATSC (de-ATSC). Proliferation activity of ATSCs after dedifferentiation was induced by REX1, Oct4, and JAK/STAT3 directly or indirectly. De-ATSCs showed increased migration activity that mediated by P38/JUNK and ERK phosphorylation. Moreover, regenerative efficacy of de-ATSC engrafted spinal cord-injured rats and chemical-induced diabetes animals were significantly restored their functions.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our stem cell remodeling system may provide a good model which would provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying ATSC proliferation and transdifferentiation. Also, these multipotent stem cells can be harvested may provide us with a valuable reservoir of primitive and autologous stem cells for use in a broad spectrum of regenerative cell-based disease therapy.

Protective effects of Phellinus linteus extract against iron overload-mediated oxidative stress in cultured rat hepatocytes

Phellinus linteus (PL) mushroom has been reported to possess antioxidant activity. The present study was designed to investigate whether an ethanol extract obtained from PL might ameliorate oxidative stress and enhance antioxidant enzyme activities in primary rat hepatocytes, which were overloaded with iron using ferric nitrilotriacetate (FeNTA) complex. FeNTA enables hepatocytes to accumulate substantially redox-active iron and stimulates the production of injurious hydroxyl radicals, which in turn, initiate oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity. The results showed that pretreatment of hepatocytes with PL extract (50, 100 and 200 microg/mL) for 24 h significantly reversed FeNTA-induced cell viability loss, lactate dehydrogenase leakage (LDH), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and protein carbonyl formation in a dose-dependent manner. It was further observed that PL extract produced an inhibitory effect on intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation caused by FeNTA. Concomitantly, the amount of GSH content and the activities of glutathione reductase (GSH Rd) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH Px) in hepatocytes pretreated with PL extract increased substantially compared with those treated with FeNTA alone. These results suggest that PL may be useful in protecting against FeNTA-induced oxidative damage and also be capable of attenuating cytotoxicity of other oxidants.