Deciphering psilocybin: Cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory effects, and mechanistic insights

A decade of clinical research has indicated psilocybin's effectiveness in treating various neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression and substance abuse. The correlation between increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and the severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms, along with the known anti-inflammatory potential of some psychedelics, suggests an immunomodulatory role for psilocybin. This study aims to understand the mechanism of action of psilocybin by investigating the cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects of psilocybin and psilocin on both resting and LPS-activated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. The study evaluated the cytotoxicity of psilocybin and psilocin using an LDH assay across various doses and assessed their impact on cytokine production in RAW 264.7 cells, measuring cytokine expression via ELISA. Different doses, including those above and below the LC50, were used in both pre-treatment and post-treatment approaches. The LDH assay revealed that psilocybin is almost twice as cytotoxic as psilocin, with an LC50 of 12 ng/ml and 28 ng/ml, respectively. In resting macrophages, both psilocybin and psilocin triggered significant release of TNF- α after 4 h, with the lowest doses inducing higher levels of the cytokine than the highest doses. IL-10 expression in resting cells was only triggered by the highest dose of psilocin in the 4-hour incubation group. In LPS-stimulated cells, psilocin reduced TNF- α levels more than psilocybin in pre-treatment and post-treatment, with no significant effects on IL-10 in pre-treatment. Psilocin, but not psilocybin, induced a significant increase of IL-10 in post-treatment, leading to the conclusion that psilocin, but not psilocybin, exerts anti-inflammatory effects on classically activated macrophages.

Quantification of psilocin in human whole blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

There has been burgeoning interest in psilocybin-use for the treatment of various neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. Psilocybin is mistakenly perceived as the principal pharmacologically active compound due to its high concentrations found in magic mushrooms; however, it is the prodrug of psilocin. Despite the expanding body of clinical research seeking to understand the pharmacodynamic/pharmacokinetic properties of psilocin, and its role in inducing dramatic changes to cognitive function, there has not been a corresponding increase in the development of sensitive analytical methods that can quantify psilocin in different biological fluids. Existing analytical methods have been developed using plasma, serum, and urine as the matrix of choice, but with the unknown blood-to-plasma ratio of psilocin, any pharmacokinetic conclusions drawn solely on plasma data may be misleading. Thus, the main objective of this study is to develop the first analytical method that utilizes SPE and LC-MS/MS to quantify psilocin in human whole blood. The SPE procedure yielded a high recovery efficiency (≥89%) with minimal matrix effects. The method was validated according to ANSI/ASB 036 guidelines. Linearity was between 0.7-200 ng/mL and encompassed previously reported ranges found in plasma/serum. Bias, within- and between-run precision for all quality controls met ANSI/ASB 036 acceptability criteria. Endogenous/exogenous interferences and carryover were negligible. Psilocin stability was assessed at 4°C over 48 h and was considered stable. Although a proof-of-concept study will need to be performed to characterize the method, this analytical workflow was able to detect and quantify psilocin in human whole blood at low limits of quantification.

Antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like activities and acute toxicity evaluation of the Psilocybe cubensis mushroom in experimental models in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases can be diverse and usually present with comorbidity, as in the case of depression and anxiety. Despite alternatives like Psilocybe mushrooms for mental health there is no basic research to evidence their CNS benefits.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects, as well as the acute toxicity of P. cubensis mushroom.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

First, the acute toxicity (LD50) of P. cubensis (2000 mg/kg) was determined after the esophageal (p.o.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) route of administration. The rota-rod test and electroencephalogram (EEG) were included to assess CNS toxicity in free moving mice. Anxiolytic (ambulatory or exploratory and rearing behaviors) and antidepressant behavioral responses were assayed in the open-field, plus-maze, and forced swimming test, respectively, after administration of 1000 mg/kg, p.o., of the whole P. cubensis mushroom or the polar aqueous (AQ) or methanolic (MeOH) extractions (1, 10, and/or 100 mg/kg, i.p.) in comparison to the reference drugs buspirone (4 mg/kg, i.p.), fluoxetine and/or imipramine (10 mg/kg, s.c. and i.p., respectively). A chemical analysis of the AQ and MeOH extractions was performed to detect psilocybin and/or psilocin by using UHPLC.

RESULTS

Neurotoxic effects of P. cubensis mushroom administered at high doses were absent in mice assessed in the rota-rod test or for EEG activity. A LD50 > 2000 mg/kg was calculated by p.o. or i.p. administration. While significant and/or dose-response antidepressant-like effects were produced with the whole P. cubensis mushroom, p.o., and after parenteral administration of the AQ or MeOH extractions resembling the effects of the reference drugs. Behavioral responses were associated with an anxiolytic-like effect in the open-field as corroborated in the plus-maze tests. The presence of psilocybin and psilocin was mainly characterized in the AQ extraction.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide preclinical evidence of the anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects of the P. cubensis mushroom without producing neurotoxicity after enteral or parenteral administration, where psilocybin and psilocin were identified mainly after AQ extraction. This study reinforces the benefits of the P. cubensis mushroom in mental health and therapy for anxiety and depression.

Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry

A method for clinical potency determination of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushroom species Psilocybe cubensis was developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Five strains of dried, intact mushrooms were obtained and analyzed: Blue Meanie, Creeper, B-Plus, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis. An extraction protocol was developed; this included an evaluation of sample milling technique, extraction solvents, and recovery/stability. Reversed phase chromatography on fused-core particle phases was developed for the determination of the two analytes using internal standard calibration with deuterated isotopologues of each analyte. The separation takes less than 5 min. Matrix effects were investigated by comparing signal response of calibration samples in neat solution and several mushroom matrices; no significant matrix effects were observed. The limit of detection for psilocybin was 1.5 ng/mL (1.5 pg on-column; 300 ng/g mushroom) and for psilocin was 0.15 ng/mL (0.15 pg on-column; 30 ng/g mushroom) using a Shimadzu LCMS-8050 triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Assessment of the accuracy and precision of the method indicated percent error and RSD were <6 % at all concentration levels. Three whole, intact mushrooms from each strain were analyzed individually to obtain average content differences both between strains and between mushrooms of the same strain. From most to least potent, the study found that the average total psilocybin and psilocin concentrations for the Creeper, Blue Meanie, B+, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis strains were 1.36, 1.221, 1.134, 1.103, and 0.879 % (w/w), respectively. A subset of these mushrooms was also tested in a separate non-affiliated laboratory, and the results were comparable between the two laboratories. Results from the secondary laboratory showed improved precision when multiple mushrooms were homogenized together, prior to extraction.

The effect of casing and gypsum on the yield and psychoactive tryptamine content of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer

Psychedelic fungi have experienced a surge in interest in recent years. Most notably, the fungal secondary metabolite psilocybin has shown tremendous promise in the treatment of various psychiatric disorders. The mushroom species that produce this molecule are poorly understood. Here we sought to examine for the first time, the response of a psilocybin-producing species Psilocybe cubensis to casing (peat moss and vermiculite) and supplementation with gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate), two common practices in commercial mushroom cultivation. Mycelial samples of genetically authenticated P. cubensis were used to inoculate popcorn grain bags. The fully colonized bags of popcorn grain (0.15 kg) were transferred to bins of 0.85 kg pasteurized horse manure, with or without 1 cm thick layer of casing and/or 5 % gypsum. Our results indicate that the use of a casing layer significantly increases the biological efficiency (161.5 %), by approximately four fold, in comparison to control (40.5 %), albeit with a slight delay (∼2 days) for obtaining fruiting bodies and a somewhat reduced total tryptamine content (0.85 %) as gauged by High Performance Liquid Chromatography measurements. Supplementation with both casing and gypsum, however, appears to promote maximal yields (896.6 g/kg of dried substrate), with a biological efficiency of 89.6 %, while also maintaining high total tryptamine expressions (0.95 %). These findings, revealing methods for maximizing yield of harvest and expressions of psychoactive tryptamines, may prove useful for both home growers and commercial cultivators of this species, and ultimately support the growth of a robust industry with high quality natural products.

Psychedelic fungus (Psilocybe sp.) authentication in a case of illegal drug traffic: sporological, molecular analysis and identification of the psychoactive substance

In nature, there are >200 species of fungi with hallucinogenic properties. These fungi are classified as Psilocybe, Gymnopilus, and Panaeolus which contain active principles with hallucinogenic properties such as ibotenic acid, psilocybin, psilocin, or baeocystin. In Chile, fungi seizures are mainly of mature specimens or spores. However, clandestine laboratories have been found that process fungus samples at the mycelium stage. In this transient stage of growth (mycelium), traditional taxonomic identification is not feasible, making it necessary to develop a new method of study. Currently, DNA analysis is the only reliable method that can be used as an identification tool for the purposes of supporting evidence, due to the high variability of DNA between species. One way to identify the species of a distinctive DNA fragment is to study PCR products analyzed by real time PCR and sequencing. One of the most popular sequencing methods of forensic interest at the generic and intra-generic levels in plants is internal transcribed spacer (ITS). With real time PCR it is possible to distinguish PCR products by differential analysis of their melting temperature (Tm) curves. This paper describes morphological, chemical, and genetic analysis of mycelia of psychedelic fungi collected from a clandestine laboratory. The fungus species were identified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mass spectrometry, HRM analysis, and ITS sequencing. The sporological studies showed a generally smooth surface and oval shape, with maximum length 10.1 μm and width 6.4 μm. The alkaloid Psilocyn was identified by mass spectrometry, while HRM analysis and ITS sequencing identified the species as Psilocybe cubensis. A genetic match was confirmed between the HRM curves obtained from the mycelia (evidence) and biological tissue extracted from the fruiting bodies. Mycelia recovered from the evidence and fruiting bodies (control) were genetically indistinguishable.

[Psilocybin - public available psychodysleptic]

Substances of plant origin have been used to induce hallucinations for a long time, in religious ceremonies and rituals as well as in pain relief. Psilocybin and psilocin naturally occur in the fungal genus Psilocybe. Due to the psychedelic effects and relative harmlessness of these substances and the fact that they do not cause physical addiction, psilocybin and psilocin recently have been increasingly replacing synthetic psychodysleptics, such as diethylamide D-lysergic acid. Both compounds as psychoactive substances are illegal, but psilocybin, in addition to psychotropic action, also shows positive effects, which from a medical point of view indicate its therapeutic potential and capacity for use in therapy. However, poisoning by psilocin and its derivatives is still a major clinical and social problem, mainly among young people, which is why quick and reliable identification of these substances is very important. Traditional ways of assigning the sample to a particular taxon, such as morphological and biochemical analysis or palynological and sporological studies, are not very universal and often do not provide clear results. Credibility, high speed and lower cost of DNA analysis make genetic methods more often used to determine the species of fungi. These methods are random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and high resolution melting (HRM). Moreover, analysis of the regions ITS1 and nLSU was suggested as a valid method for application in the molecular taxonomy of fungi for forensic purposes. Modern methods of identifying psilocybin and psilocin in fungi and biological material are: zone capillary electrophoresis, high performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The mentioned methods are successfully used for the identification of psychoactive substances in fungi as well as in blood and urine samples.

[Hallucinogenic fungi (psilocybe). Part II. Identification of Psilocybe semilanceata by PCR]

Psilocybe semilanceata belongs to the genus of Psilocybe; it is a hallucinogenic fungus, frequently found in regions with high rainfall, in the grass and moss. There are estimated to be as many as eight Psilocybe hallucinogenic species containing psychoactive alkaloids, such as psilocybin and psilocin, which may cause visual, auditory and other hallucinations, as well as profound changes in the perception of time and space. Since identification of P semilanceata in a form different than a fresh mushroom is almost impossible, the authors made an attempt at developing a method of fungi identification based on the PCR technique, which could be helpful in a fight against dangerous consumption of these hallucinogens by the youth. Detection of the specific DNA sequence for P semilanceata brought good results; the test may be commonly employed in forensic practice in the future.

Application of ion mobility spectrometry in cases of forensic interest

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) has been known as an analytical technique since the late 1960s and early 1970s. To date, it has been successfully utilized for the detection of environmental pollutants, warfare agents, explosives, herbicides, pesticides, petroleum products as well as for the detection of prescription and illicit drugs. In this paper the authors describe the use of the IMS technology in cases of forensic interest in Salzburg, Austria. We report the use of the IMS methodology for the rapid analysis of hallucinogenic mushroom material as well as for the analysis of samples taken after an explosion. A new application of the IMS technology for the analysis of postmortem sweat samples for drugs is also presented.

The determination of psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms by HPLC utilizing a dual reagent acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) chemiluminescence detection system

This paper describes a procedure for the determination of psilocin and psilocybin in mushroom extracts using high-performance liquid chromatography with postcolumn chemiluminescence detection. A number of extraction methods for psilocin and psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms were investigated, with a simple methanolic extraction being found to be most effective. Psilocin and psilocybin were extracted from a variety of hallucinogenic mushrooms using methanol. The analytes were separated on a C12 column using a (95:5% v/v) methanol:10 mM ammonium formate, pH 3.5 mobile phase with a run time of 5 min. Detection was realized through a dual reagent chemiluminescence detection system of acidic potassium permanganate and tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II). The chemiluminescence detection system gave improved detectability when compared with UV absorption at 269 nm, with detection limits of 1.2 x 10(-8) and 3.5 x 10(-9) mol/L being obtained for psilocin and psilocybin, respectively. The procedure was applied to the determination of psilocin and psilocybin in three Australian species of hallucinogenic mushroom.

Phylogenetic relationship of psychoactive fungi based on rRNA gene for a large subunit and their identification using the TaqMan assay (II)

"Magic mushroom (MM)" is the name most commonly given to psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic components: psilocin (1) and psilocybin (2). We investigated the rRNA gene (internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU)) of two Panaeolus species and four Psilocybe species fungi (of these, two are non-psilocybin species). On the basis of sequence alignment, we improved the identification system developed in our previous study. In this paper, we describe the new system capable of distinguishing MMs from non-psilocybin Psilocybe species, its application data and the phylogeny of MM species.

Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric determination of hallucinogenic indoles psilocin and psilocybin in "magic mushroom" samples

Accurate and sensitive analytical methods for psilocin (PC) and psilocybin (PB), tryptamine-type hallucinogens contained in "magic mushrooms," were investigated using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The chromatographic separation on an ODS column and mass spectral information gave complete discrimination between PC and PB without derivatization. The mass spectrometric detection had a high sensitivity, and the tandem mass spectrometric detection provided more specificity and accuracy, as well as high sensitivity. The detection limits ranged from 1 to 25 pg by LC-MS in the selected ion monitoring mode, and the intra- and inter-day coefficients of variation were estimated to be 4.21-5.93% by LC-MS-MS in the selected reaction monitoring mode. By applying the present LC-MS-MS technique to four real samples, the contents of PC and PB were found to vary over a wide range (0.60-1.4 and 0.18-3.8 mg/g dry wt. for PC and PB, respectively) between samples.

The Meixner test in the detection of alpha-amanitin and false-positive reactions caused by psilocin and 5-substituted tryptamines

STUDY OBJECTIVE

The Meixner test has been suggested to identify the presence of alpha-amanitin, one of the toxic compounds in Amanita mushrooms. We attempted to determine the detection limit of the Meixner test for alpha-amanitin and to determine the percentage of positive sample interpretation compared with other mushroom indole compounds.

METHODS

This was a 2-part in vitro experiment. In part 1, we applied the Meixner test to a series of dilutions of alpha-amanitin (0 microg, 0.8 microg, 1.0 microg, 2.0 microg, and 4.0 microg) on telephone book paper, which were then presented to 5 blinded emergency physicians. We sought to determine the lowest amount of alpha-amanitin that was universally recognized as positive by the physicians (the detection limit). In the second part, 5 emergency physicians were presented simultaneously with 10 Meixner processed samples, including the mushroom indole compounds alpha-amanitin (2 microg and 10 microg), psilocin (20 microL and 60 microL of mushroom extract), 5-hydroxytryptamine (100 microg and 200 microg), and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (100 microg and 200 microg), as well as 2 negative controls (20 microL of water and methanol). We determined how likely these other indoles are to be mistaken for a positive alpha-amanitin Meixner reaction result by determining the percentage of positive sample interpretation for each compound and comparing them with the rate for alpha-amanitin. Fisher's exact test was used to determine any significant difference (P<.05) between the samples.

RESULTS

The minimum amount of alpha-amanitin that was identified with 100% agreement by testers was 2 microg. For the second part, there was 100% agreement that psilocin gives a positive Meixner test (100% false positive) and a 35% recognition rate of the 5-substituted tryptamine compounds as a positive Meixner test. There was no statistical difference between the interpretation of alpha-amanitin and psilocin, suggesting the test is unable to differentiate between them.

CONCLUSION

Although the Meixner test has a good detection limit for toxic amounts of alpha-amanitin, a positive Meixner reaction does not adequately distinguish between alpha-amanitin and other mushroom indoles.

Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic fungi: a DNA-based approach

Hallucinogenic fungi synthesize two controlled substances, psilocin and psilocybin. Possession of the fungal species that contain these compounds is a criminal offence in North America. Some related species that are morphologically similar, do not contain the controlled substances. Therefore, unambiguous identification of fungi to the species level is critical in determining if a mushroom is illegal. We investigate a phylogenetic approach for the identification of species that contain the psychoactive compounds. We analyzed 35 North American specimens representing seven different genera of hallucinogenic and non-hallucinogenic mushrooms. We amplified and sequenced the internal transcribed spacer region of the rDNA (ITS-1) and a 5' portion of the nuclear large ribosomal subunit of rRNA (nLSU rRNA or 28S). ITS-1 locus sequence data was highly variable and produced a phylogenetic resolution that was not consistent with morphological identifications. In contrast, the nLSU rRNA data clustered isolates from the same species and separated hallucinogen containing and non-hallucinogen containing isolates into distinct clades. With this information, we propose an approach that combines the specificity of PCR detection and the resolving power of phylogenetic analysis to efficiently and unambiguously identify hallucinogenic fungal specimens for legal purposes.

[Levels of psilocybin and psilocin in various types of mushrooms]

Psilocin and psilocybin are psychoactive components of mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe and many others (Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus etc.). In our republic, several species of Psilocybe with a high content of these components can be found. In the present study, we give a semiquantitative content of psilocin and psilocybin in some of our mushrooms in dry substance (Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica, Psilocybe arcana, Psilocybe cyanescens, Panaeolus acuminatus sensu Ricken, Inocybe haemacta and Pluteus salicinus). For quantification, the GC/MS instrumentation was applied. Psilocin and psilocybin were silylated by the derivatization agent N-methyl-N-trimet-hylsilyltrifluoroacetamide. As an internal standard, 5-methoxytryptamin was used. The results of this study prove the presence of at least three species of Psilocybe with a high content of psychoactive components growing in our republic: Psilocybe semilanceata, Psilocybe bohemica and Psilocybe arcana.

Poly(dimethylsiloxane) electrospray devices fabricated with diamond-like carbon-poly(dimethylsiloxane) coated SU-8 masters

This study presents coupling of a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) micro-chip with electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Stable electrospray is generated directly from a PDMS micro-channel without pressure assistance. Hydrophobic PDMS aids the formation of a small Taylor cone in the ESI process and facilitates straightforward and low-cost batch production of the ESI-MS chips. PDMS chips were replicated with masters fabricated from SU-8 negative photoresist. A novel coating, an amorphous diamond-like carbon-poly(dimethylsiloxane) hybrid, deposited on the masters by the filtered pulsed plasma arc discharge technique, improved significantly the lifetime of the masters in PDMS replications. PDMS chip fabrication conditions were observed to affect the amount of background peaks in the MS spectra. With an optimized fabrication process (PDMS curing agent/silicone elastomer base ratio of 1/8 (w/w), curing at 70 degree C for 48 h) low background spectra were recorded for the analytes. The performance of PDMS devices was examined in the ESI-MS analysis of some pharmaceutical compounds and amino acids.

[Discrimination of psychoactive fungi (commonly called "magic mushrooms") based on the DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer region]

'Magic mushrooms' (MMs) are psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic compounds, psilocin (1) and psilocybin (2). Since June 6, 2002, these fungi have been regulated by the Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law in Japan. Because there are many kinds of MMs and they are sold even as dry powders in local markets, it is very difficult to identify the original species of the MMs by morphological observation. Therefore, we investigated the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region in the ribosomal RNA gene of MMs obtained in Japanese markets to classify them by a genetic approach. Based on the size and nucleotide sequence of the ITS region amplified by PCR, tested MMs were classified into 6 groups. Furthermore, a comparison of the DNA sequences of the MMs with those of authentic samples or with those found in the databases (GenBank, EMBL and DDBJ) made it possible to identify the species of tested MMs. Analysis by LC revealed that psilocin (1) was contained at the highest level in Panaeolus cyanescens among the MMs, but was absent in the Amanita species.

Psychotropic drugs in developmental mushrooms: a case study review

Psilocyn and psilocybin can be identified in different stages of developing psilocybe mushrooms. Knowing the various stages of the mushroom development can be useful when receiving evidence from illicit mushroom growing operations. Exhibits from three separate cases were submitted to the drug analysis section of the Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension Forensic Science Laboratory. Each case contained different stages of developing mushrooms. This report describes the evidence in each case, the sample preparation, the sample analysis and the final report that was written.

The pharmacology of psilocybin

Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is the major psychoactive alkaloid of some species of mushrooms distributed worldwide. These mushrooms represent a growing problem regarding hallucinogenic drug abuse. Despite its experimental medical use in the 1960s, only very few pharmacological data about psilocybin were known until recently. Because of its still growing capacity for abuse and the widely dispersed data this review presents all the available pharmacological data about psilocybin.

Effects of nebulizing and drying gas flow on capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry

This study was focused on examining the influence of gas flow parameters on capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry (CE /MS) performance using sheath-liquid CE /MS interfaces. The effects of nebulizing and drying gas velocity and drying gas temperature on CE separation and MS detection sensitivity were systematically determined. Nebulizing gas velocity was observed to be a critical parameter in the optimization of CE /MS method, since it affected both MS detection sensitivity, and also CE separation efficiency for one interface design tested. Better detection sensitivity was obtained when the nebulizing gas velocity was increased. However, high velocity of the nebulizing gas flow can cause a hydrodynamic bulk flow inside the CE capillary, thus clearly increasing the apparent mobility and decreasing the resolution obtained for the compounds studied. Increasing the drying gas velocity or temperature did not affect the apparent mobility or the separation efficiency and the temperature could be increased to achieve the optimal detection sensitivity in the CE /MS analysis. For comparison, the effects of nebulizing gas flow were studied using a different design of the coaxial sheath-liquid CE /MS interface, and in this case better detection sensitivity but no effect on CE separation efficiency was observed with increased nebulizing gas velocity. These different effects of nebulizing gas flow on the CE bulk flow were concluded to result from pressure differences at the tip of the CE capillaries for the different CE /MS interface arrangements. It is therefore recommended that the cross-sectional dimensions of the fused-silica and steel capillaries, and the gas streamlines, should be optimized when CE /MS interfaces are built. Moreover, the effect of gas flow on CE separation should be studied when optimizing the CE /MS operation parameters.

Hallucinogenic mushrooms on the German market - simple instructions for examination and identification

'Magic mushrooms' is the name most commonly given to psychoactive fungi containing the hallucinogenic components psilocybin and psilocin. Material confiscated by local authorities was examined using morphologic, microscopic, microchemical, and toxicological methods. Psilocybe cubensis was the most popular mushroom in the sample collective, followed by Psilocybe semilanceata, Panaeolus cyanescens and Psilocybe tampanensis. The alkaloid content was determined with <0.003-1.15% of psilocybin and 0.01-0.90% psilocin. Panaeolus cyanescens was the mushroom with highest levels of psilocybin and psilocin.

[Microscopic study of powders of hallucinogenic mushrooms--Psilocybe sp]

The paper presents simple methods for microscopic examination and basic microchemical testing for the identification of suspect mushroom powders. The microscopic features of the most commonly cultivated and trafficked hallucinogenic genus Psilocybin are described and may serve for the decision whether any suspect material consists of such mushroom powder (and is therefore to be subjected to further analysis) or not.

Analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in Psilocybe subcubensis Guzmán by ion mobility spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A new method has been developed for the rapid analysis of psilocybin and/or psilocin in fungus material using ion mobility spectrometry. Quantitative analysis was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after a simple one-step extraction involving homogenization of the dried fruit bodies of fungi in chloroform and derivatization with MSTFA. The proposed methods resulted in rapid procedures useful in analyzing psychotropic fungi for psilocybin and psilocin.

[The forensic chemical study of psilocybine-containing fungi]

A method for isolating the main components (psilocybin and psilocine) from Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms, their identification and measurement by thin-layer and gas-liquid chromatography, chromatographic mass-spectrometry, and inverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is developed.

Honey with Psilocybe mushrooms: a revival of a very old preparation on the drug market?

In 1996 samples of suspicious honey preparations were confiscated at the Dutch-German border. The labels on the 50 ml jars indicated that the honey contained Stropharia cubensis (better known as Psilocybe cubensis). The jars were filled with honey with a ca. 1 cm layer of fine particles on the top. The particles were collected and subjected to microscopic and chemical analysis. By microscopy mushroom tissue (plectenchym) and spores typical for the genus Psilocybe were identified in all samples. The HPLC analysis with atmospheric pressure mass spectrometry and diode array detection revealed psilocine but psilocybine was not found. The quantitative analysis was very difficult due to the matrix problems. A search showed that the honey with Psilocybe can be purchased in Dutch coffee shops without any limitations although psilocine and psilocybine belong to listed substances according to Dutch law.

Presence of phenylethylamine in hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushroom: possible role in adverse reactions

The use of mushrooms containing the hallucinogenic substance psilocybin for intentional intoxication is relatively common. Occasionally, this results in adverse reactions with typical tachycardia that is not evidently caused by psilocybin. This study demonstrates the presence of phenylethylamine in the species Psilocybe semilanceata using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and shows that the amount of this substance may vary much more than that of psilocybin. The highest amount of phenylethylamine (146 microg/g wet weight) was observed in mushrooms from a case of three young men hospitalized because of adverse reactions. Comparison of the symptoms observed in clinical cases of magic mushroom intoxication with those after intake of pure psilocybin or phenylethylamine suggests that phenylethylamine might have a role in the development of adverse reactions to Psilocybe mushroom intake.

Determination of psilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata by capillary zone electrophoresis

A capillary zone electrophoretic (CZE) method was developed for the rapid determination of psilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata. Following a simple two step extraction with 3.0+2.0 ml methanol, the hallucinogenic compound was effectively separated from matrix components by CZE utilizing a 10 mM borate-phosphate running buffer adjusted to pH 11.5. The identity of psilocybin was confirmed by migration time information and by UV spectra, while quantitation was accomplished utilizing barbital as internal standard. The calibration curve for psilocybin was linear within 0.01-1 mg/ml, while intra-day and inter-day variations of quantitative data were 0.5 and 2.5% R.S.D., respectively. In addition to psilocybin, the method was also suitable for the determination of the structurally related compound baeocystin.

Ethnomycology, biochemistry, and cultivation of Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus from Koh Samui, Thailand

Several specimens of Psilocybe and Copelandia species in Koh Samui, Thailand were recently collected for herbarium deposit and scientific study. This paper presents an ethnomycological and biochemical study of one of the species; P. samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive gill fungus reported from Thailand. Mycelium for the cultivation of P. samuiensis was obtained on 6% malt agar from the spores of a dried specimen. The growth of P. samuiensis was similar to that of P. tampanensis Guzmán and Pollock, but more rapid than the mycelium of P. semilanceata (Fr.:Sacc.) Kumm. Laboratory analyses indicates that the alkaloid content in cultured fruit bodies of P. samuiensis is of the same order of magnitude as that found in naturally occurring mushrooms of this species. HPLC analyses of both naturally occurring and in vitro cultivated fruit bodies of P. samuiensis revealed high concentrations of psilocybin and psilocin. Small amounts of baeocystin were also detected. Psilocybin levels varied from 0.23% up to 0.90%. The psilocybin content was highest in the caps. Psilocybin was also found in the cultured non-bluing mycelia of P. samuiensis and varied from 0.24% to 0.32% dry weight. The relative alkaloidal content of psilocybin, psilocin, and baeocystin found in P. samuiensis was similar to that measured in many other psychoactive fungi species, but completely different from that found in P. semilanceata.

Occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in Psilocybe pseudobullacea (Petch) Pegler from the Venezuelan Andes

Using thin-layer chromatographic and spectroscopic (UV) methods two Psilocybe species from the Venezuelan Andes were analysed for the hallucinogens psilocybin and psilocin. These species are: P. montana (Pers. ex Fr.) Kumm and P. pseudobullacea (Petch) Pegler. Both hallucinogens were found in P. pseudobullacea, while P. montana was found to be exempt of these compounds.

A technique for the rapid isolation and identification of psilocin from psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms

A method has been developed for the rapid isolation and identification of psilocin from psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Based on the difference in the solubility properties in butyl chloride of psilocin and other constituents present in psilocin/psilocybin-containing mushrooms, psilocin was easily separated in pure form.

An aqueous-organic extraction method for the isolation and identification of psilocin from hallucinogenic mushrooms

A simple aqueous extraction method for the isolation and identification of psilocin from Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms is reported. This method employs a dephosphorylation of the phosphate ester to psilocin, which facilitates a greater product yield and simplifies identification. Psilocin extracted by this method is sufficiently concentrated and free of cocontaminants to allow identification by infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.

Role played by narcotics laboratories in the campaign against drug abuse and drug trafficking: a view from a developing country

The narcotics laboratory at the national level identifies drugs for abuse and their accompanying substances in suspected samples, determines the purity and the possible origin of illicit drugs, carries out drug-related research, particularly on new sources of drugs liable to abuse, and, when required by the police or courts of law, provides supportive expertise in drug trafficking cases. Precaution must be taken to ensure that samples to be examined are representative. The university is a particularly appropriate setting for the location of a narcotics laboratory, especially if such a laboratory carries out complex work requiring assistance from other professional disciplines. Before new laboratory equipment is purchased, a careful study of requirements and financial resources should be made to ensure economical and optimum utilization of such equipment. In some situations the use of simple techniques, such as thin-layer chromatography, can be sufficient, while in others more sophisticated techniques may be required. Appropriate training of personnel is of particular importance for the effective functioning of a narcotics laboratory. The laboratory of the Department of Toxicology and Forensic Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, provides for the training of personnel at three levels: The first level consists of basic training, which includes the use of kits for rapid identification of drugs in field conditions, for personnel from the police, gendarmerie, prefecture, customs and other agencies which deal with drug problems, but which have no previous skills in laboratory techniques; The second level is provided for professional laboratory personnel and usually lasts six months; The third level consists of two years' postgraduate university training for students who are expected to carry out complex laboratory work; an additional year is provided for trainees who are expected to assume responsibility in a laboratory unit.

Screening of hallucinogenic mushrooms with high-performance liquid chromatography and multiple detection

A rapid, sensitive and specific method for the screening of hallucinogenic mushrooms has been developed. High-performance liquid chromatography with simultaneous use of ultraviolet, fluorescence and electrochemical detection was employed. Separation of the mushroom components was achieved on a silica column using an alkaline aqueous methanolic eluent. The use of detector response ratios for identification of hallucinogenic indole alkaloids has been evaluated.

The quantitation of psilocybin in hallucinogenic mushrooms using high performance liquid chromatography

A method using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an acetonitrile, water, and phosphoric acid mobile phase and a bonded cyano-amino-type polar phase column has been developed for the rapid, selective, and accurate quantitation of psilocybin in dry mushroom material. A simple one-step procedure is used for the quantitative extraction of psilocybin in under 60 min. The 267:254 nm absorbance ratio is used as a check on peak purity for the psilocybin response.

Psilocybin and psilocin levels in twenty species from seven genera of wild mushrooms in the Pacific Northwest, U.S.A

The analysis of twenty species from seven genera of Pacific Northwest mushrooms revealed psilocybin (and in some cases psilocin as well) in seven species from three genera. The species found to contain psilocybin (and psilocin) varied from one collection to another by more than a factor of seven in amount present. Total psilocybin and psilocin levels in species known to be in use for recreational and entheogenic purposes varied from 0.1% by dry weight up to a high of nearly 2% by dry weight.

Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer

Analysis of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer grown in controlled culture showed that the level of psilocin was generally zero in the first (or sometimes even the second) fruiting of the mushroom from a given culture and that the level reached a maximum by the fourth flush. The level of psilocybin, which was nearly always at least twice the level of psilocin, showed no upward or downward trend as fruiting progressed, but was variable over a factor of four. Samples obtained from outside sources had psilocybin levels varying by over a factor of ten from one collection to the next.

Quantitative analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in psilocybe baeocystis (Singer and Smith) by high-performance liquid chromatography and by thin-layer chromatography

Rapid quantification of psilocybin and psilocin in extracts of wild mushrooms is accomplished by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with paired-ion reagents. Nine solvent systems and three solid supports are evaluated for their efficiency in separating psilocybin, psilocin and other components of crude mushroom extracts by thin-layer chromatography.

Analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in mushroom extracts by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography

A method has been developed for the analysis of psilocybin and psilocin in dry and preserved mushrooms using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography. A mobile phase of phosphate buffered methanol/water/cetrimonium bromide allows good separation of the two hallucinogens.

[Narcotic mushrooms with LSD?]

We tested dried East-Asian mushrooms that have only recently appeared on the German drug "scene". They were impregnated with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but sold as Mexican sacred hallucinogenic mushrooms, containing psilocybine. For the safe identification of psilocybine in mushrooms, TASmethod is proposed. Successful identification of LSD in mushrooms is done by tartaric acid extraction with subsequent TLC of the free base. The modified van Urk reaction in connection with hRf-values is best suited for the detection of psilocybine, psilocine and LSD.

GLC-mass spectral analysis of psilocin and psilocybin

With the combined technique of GLC-mass spectrometry, psilocin and psilocybin, two hallucinogenic indoles, were analyzed as their trimethylsilyl derivatives. The method was applied to these two components in an extract of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Sing.

Baeocystin in Psilocybe semilanceata

Baeocystin and psilocybin were found in extracts of a variety of Psilocybe semilanceata. Psilocybin (but not baeocystin) was also detected in extracts of a related species. Psilocyte pelliculosa. Traces of psilocin were present in these two species. The structures of the isolated compounds were corroborated using mass spectrometry and UV spectroscopy.