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Oh S, Kim H, Kim M, Jin X, Zheng S, Yi TH. The effects of Jawoongo soap on skin improvement. J Cosmet Dermatol 2024; 23:1862-1874. [PMID: 38275088 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.16199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Jawoongo is used to treat and prevent skin issues such as dry and keratinization disorders, burns, trauma, pigmentation, scarring, and inflammatory skin conditions. In this study, the efficacy and safety of 0.47% Jawoongo extract-containing soap (JAUN-CS) were assessed in terms of skin improvement effects such as cleansing, moisturizing, sebum secretion management, and skin elasticity enhancement. METHODS Twenty healthy adult men and women aged 20-60 years old took part in the study. Before and after using JAUN-CS, the participants were divided into groups, and various skin improvement effects were measured utilizing machines such as the Corneometer, Tewameter TM 300, and Visioscan. A dermatologist analyzed the product's safety in accordance with Frosch & Kligman and the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association (CTFA) rules. RESULTS Using JAUN reduced the amount of base and point makeup by 25.7% and 76.7%, respectively. Also, JAUN showed a great facial exfoliation effect by removing the old and lifted skin keratins by 84.7% and 20.3%, respectively. Impurities in facial pores decreased by 58%, too. Furthermore, JAUN increased the moisture content of deep skin and skin surface by 3.5% and 74.0%, and skin elasticity by 2.8%. Skin tone, skin texture, skin radiance, and skin barrier all showed improvements of 3.3%, 20.0%, 15.0%, and 115.2%, respectively. Lastly, cleansing with JAUN successfully enhanced the condition of the youth triangle by 7.6%, while TEWL significantly decreased by 52.7%. Neither the JAUN nor the control group soap showed any adverse reactions, such as erythema or allergies, during the testing period. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study demonstrated that JAUN is safe for human use and has various skin-improving properties, making Jawoongo a promising natural material for the development of functional cosmetics in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarang Oh
- College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeong-gi-do, Korea
- Snowwhitefactory Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea
| | - Hongyong Kim
- College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeong-gi-do, Korea
| | - Myeongju Kim
- College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeong-gi-do, Korea
| | - Xiangji Jin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Shengdao Zheng
- College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeong-gi-do, Korea
- Snowwhitefactory Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae-Hoo Yi
- College of Life Science, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeong-gi-do, Korea
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Ramos MCM, Velasco MVR, Bueno M, Veríssimo MDLÓR. Effects of Liquid and Bar Soaps on the Skin of Brazilian Newborns: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2024; 36:267-277. [PMID: 38262395 DOI: 10.1159/000536066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Compared to adults, newborns' skin has a thinner epidermis and stratum corneum with decreased hydration levels, higher transepidermal water loss, and a pH variation between 5.5 and 7.5. These characteristics can predispose to the occurrence of dryness, infections, and dermatological conditions. Water and liquid soap with adequate formulation have shown to be beneficial and safe for newborns' skin. However, studies evaluating the effect of bar soap, products widely used in Brazil and Latin America, are unknown. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the effects of liquid and bar soaps on the term newborns' skin. METHODS This randomized controlled, parallel, single-blind clinical trial was conducted at a public university hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. 100 healthy term newborns with no congenital anomalies, acute diseases, or dermatological conditions were randomized to use liquid soap (experimental group) or bar soap (control group). Skin pH, transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, sebum content, and skin condition were assessed before and after the first bath, at 48 h, 14 days, and 28 days after birth. These evaluations were performed on the forearm, abdomen, buttocks, and thigh. In addition, the mother's perception of soap use was also evaluated. RESULTS Data of 100 newborns were analyzed by intention to treat. The rate of retention was 53%. Newborns exposed to the liquid soap presented significantly better skin acidification (p < 0.001) and significantly better stratum corneum hydration (p < 0.001) than the skin of newborns exposed to the bar soap, regardless of the area evaluated. There were no significant differences in transepidermal water loss, sebum content, dryness, erythema, or skin breakdown and the mother's perceptions of the use of the soaps. CONCLUSION Newborns in the experimental group presented better skin acidification and stratum corneum hydration when compared to newborns in the control group.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mariana Bueno
- Peter Gilgan Centre For Research and Learning (PGCRL), Hospital For Sick Children Foundation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Peter M, Kanathila H, Bembalagi M, Santhosh VN, Vas R, Patil S, Roy TR, Monsy M, Gopu BN, Chindak S. An In Vitro Comparative Evaluation of Conventional and Novel Thymus vulgaris Derived Herbal Disinfectant Solutions against Pathogenic Biofilm on Maxillofacial Silicones and Its Impact on Color Stability. J Contemp Dent Pract 2023; 24:967-973. [PMID: 38317394 DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-10024-3602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
AIM This study aims to assess the antimicrobial efficacy and impact on color stability of Thymus (T.) vulgaris solution compared to conventional disinfectants on maxillofacial silicones. MATERIALS AND METHODS Various solutions were evaluated, including T. vulgaris solutions at 5 and 10%, saline (control), chlorhexidine (4%), and soap water. The substrates were MDX4-4210 silicone elastomers, and the microorganisms tested were Candida (C.) albicans and Staphylococcus (S.) aureus. The viability of microorganisms was determined through an 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay, and color stability was measured using a spectrophotometer with X-Rite Europe software. Statistical analysis was performed using the Kruskal-Wallis test, Mann-Whitney U post hoc test, and Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. RESULTS Soap water demonstrated superior disinfectant action against both microorganisms, while T. vulgaris solutions at 5 and 10% exhibited comparable antimicrobial efficacy. Chlorhexidine and 10% T. vulgaris solution showed minimal color changes in the silicone material. In contrast, soap water and the 5% T. vulgaris solution resulted in clinically unacceptable color alterations. CONCLUSION This study underscores the potential of T. vulgaris as an herbal disinfectant for combating microbial biofilms on maxillofacial silicones, particularly at concentrations of 5 and 10%. The importance of maintaining color stability is emphasized, with Chlorhexidine and the 10% T. vulgaris solution demonstrating effective preservation of esthetics. These findings suggest the viability of considering T. vulgaris as an alternative disinfectant in clinical settings for maxillofacial silicone prostheses. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Maxillofacial silicones are vital in restoring aesthetic features for individuals with facial trauma, congenital deformities, or post-surgical interventions. Yet, biofilm-related infections jeopardize their durability and visual integrity. Clinically, T. vulgaris signifies a potential advance in prosthodontic care, offering valuable insights for improving antimicrobial performance and aesthetic durability in maxillofacial prostheses. How to cite this article: Peter M, Kanathila H, Bembalagi M, et al. An In Vitro Comparative Evaluation of Conventional and Novel Thymus vulgaris Derived Herbal Disinfectant Solutions against Pathogenic Biofilm on Maxillofacial Silicones and Its Impact on Color Stability. J Contemp Dent Pract 2023;24(12):967-973.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meekha Peter
- Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India, Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7509-4070
| | - Hema Kanathila
- Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India, Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5876-1377
| | - Mahantesh Bembalagi
- Department of Public Health Dentistry, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India, Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2809-7313
| | - Varkey Nadakkavukaran Santhosh
- Department of Public Health Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India, Phone: +91 9108858449, e-mail: , Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9197-2646
| | - Rhea Vas
- Department of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4401-5696
| | - Suvidha Patil
- Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India
| | - Treasa Richa Roy
- Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India
| | - Mibin Monsy
- JSS Dental College and Hospital, Mysuru, India
| | | | - Shreya Chindak
- Department of Prosthodontics, KLE Vishwanath Katti Institute of Dental Sciences & Hospital, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (KLE University), Belagavi, Karnataka, India
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Mijaljica D, Spada F, Harrison IP. Skin Cleansing without or with Compromise: Soaps and Syndets. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27062010. [PMID: 35335373 PMCID: PMC8954092 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27062010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Products designed to cleanse the skin commonly do so through surfactant action, which leads to the lowering of the surface tension of the skin to facilitate the removal of dirt from its surface. Skin cleansers generally come in one of two types: soap-based and synthetic detergents, or syndets. While the latter can effectively maintain the native skin structure, function and integrity, the former tends to negatively affect the skin by causing barrier disruption, lipid dissolution and pH alteration. Despite this, soap is still often preferred, possibly due to the negative connotations around anything that is not perceived as 'natural'. It is, therefore, important that the science behind cleansers, especially those designed for the maintenance of healthy skin and the management of common skin conditions such as eczema, be understood by both formulators and end-users. Here, we carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of surfactant-the key ingredient(s) in skin cleansers-and provide insight into surfactants' physicochemical properties, biological activity and potential effects. Fine-tuning of the complex characteristics of surfactants can successfully lead to an 'optimal' skin cleanser that can simultaneously be milder in nature, highly effective and beneficial, and offer minimal skin interference and environmental impact.
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Burli A, Kashetsky N, Feschuk A, Law RM, Maibach HI. Efficacy of soap and water based skin decontamination using in vivo animal models: a systematic review. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2021; 24:325-336. [PMID: 34278982 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2021.1943087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Water-only or soap and water solutions are considered a gold standard for skin decontamination. However, there is lack of conclusive data regarding their efficacy. The aim of this study was to summarize in vivo animal model data on skin decontamination using water-only, and/or soap and water. Covidence, Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched to identify relevant articles using water-only or soap and water decontamination methods in in vivo animals. Data extraction was completed from studies, representing three animal models, and 11 contaminants. Results demonstrated water-only decontamination solutions led to complete decontamination in 3.1% (n = 16/524) protocols, incomplete decontamination in 90.6% (n = 475/524) of protocols, and mortality in 6.3% (n = 33/524) of protocols. Soap and water decontamination solutions resulted in complete decontamination in 6.9% (n = 8/116) protocols, incomplete decontamination in 92.2% (n = 107/116) of protocols, and mortality in 6.9% (n = 8/116) of protocols. Although water only, or soap and water is considered a gold standard for skin decontamination, most papers investigated found that water only, and soap and water provided incomplete decontamination. Due to the insufficient data, and limitations that hinder the applicability of available data, evidence indicates that more contemporary studies investigating skin decontamination are needed, and compared to other model species, including humans, when practical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuk Burli
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, United States
| | - Nadia Kashetsky
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada
| | - Aileen Feschuk
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada
| | - Rebecca M Law
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada
- School of Pharmacy, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland & Labrador, Canada
| | - Howard I Maibach
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States
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Chiang C, Kashetsky N, Feschuk A, Burli A, Law R, Maibach H. Efficacy of water-based skin decontamination of occupational chemicals using in vitro human skin models: a systematic review. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2021; 24:337-353. [PMID: 34308791 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2021.1957048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Percutaneous absorption of chemicals is a potential route of topical and systemic toxicity. Skin decontamination interrupts this process by removing contaminants from the skin surface. Decontamination using water-only or soap and water solutions is the current gold standard despite limited efficacy data. A summary of studies evaluating their efficacy in decontaminating occupational contaminants from in vitro human skin models is presented. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched for relevant articles and data extracted from 15 investigations that reported on 21 occupational contaminants, which were further classified as industrial chemicals, drugs, or pesticides. Water-only decontamination yielded no response in 4.3% (n = 6/140) and partial decontamination in 95.7% (n = 134/140) of skin samples. Soap and water decontamination yielded complete decontamination in 4.9% (n = 13/264) and partial decontamination in 95.1% (n = 251/264) of skin samples. Four studies (26.7%, n = 4/15) reported increased penetration rates or skin concentration of contaminants following decontamination, demonstrating a "wash-in" effect. Varying study methodologies hinder our ability to compare data and determine when water alone or soap and water are best used. International harmonized efficacy protocol might enhance our decontamination understanding and enable a more customized approach to decontamination clinical practice and research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chavy Chiang
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, United States
| | | | - Aileen Feschuk
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St John's, Canada
| | - Anuk Burli
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, United States
| | - Rebecca Law
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St John's, Canada
- School of Pharmacy, Memorial University, St. John's, Canada
| | - Howard Maibach
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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Abstract
Health care workers may be at risk of occupational allergic contact dermatitis because of their frequent exposure to medical hand skin cleansers. We identified American Contact Dermatitis Society Core 80 Allergens found in medical hand skin cleansers (waterless skin soaps, water-needed skin soaps, and skin disinfectants) in the United States and developed a list of "low-allergen" medical hand skin cleansers. Waterless skin soaps most commonly contained fragrance, tocopherol, and sodium benzoate. Top allergens in water-needed skin soaps included fragrance, chloroxylenol, propylene glycol, and cocamidopropyl betaine. The most common allergens identified in skin disinfectants were chlorhexidine, cocamide diethanolamine, and fragrance. We identified 11 waterless skin soaps that were free of American Contact Dermatitis Society Core 80 Allergens. Low-allergen products were also identified for water-needed skin soaps (2 products) and skin disinfectants (4 products). This information is accurate as of the date of publication; product availability and ingredients may change over time.
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Cowdell F, Jadotte YT, Ersser SJ, Danby S, Lawton S, Roberts A, Dyson J. Hygiene and emollient interventions for maintaining skin integrity in older people in hospital and residential care settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 1:CD011377. [PMID: 32006460 PMCID: PMC6996088 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd011377.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ageing has a degenerative effect on the skin, leaving it more vulnerable to damage. Hygiene and emollient interventions may help maintain skin integrity in older people in hospital and residential care settings; however, at present, most care is based on "tried and tested" practice, rather than on evidence. OBJECTIVES To assess the effects of hygiene and emollient interventions for maintaining skin integrity in older people in hospital and residential care settings. SEARCH METHODS We searched the Cochrane Skin Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and CINAHL, up to January 2019. We also searched five trials registers. SELECTION CRITERIA Randomised controlled trials comparing hygiene and emollient interventions versus placebo, no intervention, or standard practices for older people aged ≥ 60 years in hospital or residential care settings. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS We used standard methodological procedures as expected by Cochrane. Primary outcomes were frequency of skin damage, for example, complete loss of integrity (tears or ulceration) or partial loss of integrity (fissuring), and side effects. Secondary outcomes included transepidermal water loss (TEWL), stratum corneum hydration (SCH), erythema, and clinical scores of dryness or itch. We used GRADE to assess the quality of evidence. MAIN RESULTS We included six trials involving 1598 residential care home residents; no included trial had a hospital setting. Most participants had a mean age of 80+ years; when specified, more women were recruited than men. Two studies included only people with diagnosed dry skin. Studies were conducted in Asia, Australasia, Europe, and North America. A range of hygiene and emollient interventions were assessed: a moisturising soap bar; combinations of water soak, oil soak, and lotion; regular application of a commercially available moisturiser; use of two different standardised skin care regimens comprising a body wash and leave-on body lotion; bed bath with "wash gloves" containing numerous ingredients; and application of a hot towel after usual care bed bath. In five studies, treatment duration ranged from five days to six months; only one study had post-treatment follow-up (one to eight days from end of treatment). Outcomes in the hot towel study were measured 15 minutes after the skin was wiped with a dry towel. Three studies each had high risk of attrition, detection, and performance bias. Only one trial (n = 984) assessed frequency of skin damage via average monthly incidence of skin tears during six months of treatment. The emollient group (usual care plus twice-daily application of moisturiser) had 5.76 tears per month per 1000 occupied bed-days compared with 10.57 tears in the usual care only group (ad hoc or no standardised skin-moisturising regimen) (P = 0.004), but this is based on very low-quality evidence, so we are uncertain of this result. Only one trial (n = 133) reported measuring side effects. At 56 ± 4 days from baseline, there were three undesirable effects (itch (mild), redness (mild/moderate), and irritation (severe)) in intervention group 1 (regimen consisting of a moisturising body wash and a moisturising leave-on lotion) and one event (mild skin dryness) in intervention group 2 (regimen consisting of body wash and a water-in-oil emulsion containing emollients and 4% urea). In both groups, the body wash was used daily and the emollient twice daily for eight weeks. There were zero adverse events in the usual care group. This result is based on very low-quality evidence. This same study also measured TEWL at 56 ± 4 days in the mid-volar forearm (n = 106) and the lower leg (n = 105). Compared to usual care, there may be no difference in TEWL between intervention groups, but evidence quality is low. One study, which compared application of a hot towel for 10 seconds after a usual care bed bath versus usual care bed bath only, also measured TEWL at 15 minutes after the skin was wiped with a dry towel for one second. The mean TEWL was 8.6 g/m²/h (standard deviation (SD) 3.2) in the hot towel group compared with 8.9 g/m²/h (SD 4.1) in the usual care group (low-quality evidence; n = 42), showing there may be little or no difference between groups. A lower score is more favourable. Three studies (266 participants) measured SCH, but all evidence is of very low quality; we did not combine these studies due to differences in treatments (different skin care regimens for eight weeks; wash gloves for 12 weeks; and single application of hot towel to the skin) and differences in outcome reporting. All three studies showed no clear difference in SCH at follow-up (ranging from 15 minutes after the intervention to 12 weeks from baseline), when compared with usual care. A clinical score of dryness was measured by three studies (including 245 participants); pooling was not appropriate. The treatment groups (different skin care regimens for eight weeks; a moisturising soap bar used for five days; and combinations of water soak, oil soak, and lotion for 12 days) may reduce dryness compared to standard care or no intervention (results measured at 5, 8, and 56 ± 4 days after treatment was initiated). However, the quality of evidence for this outcome is low. Outcomes of erythema and clinical score of itch were not assessed in any included studies. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Current evidence about the effects of hygiene and emollients in maintaining skin integrity in older people in residential and hospital settings is inadequate. We cannot draw conclusions regarding frequency of skin damage or side effects due to very low-quality evidence. Low-quality evidence suggests that in residential care settings for older people, certain types of hygiene and emollient interventions (two different standardised skin care regimens; moisturising soap bar; combinations of water soak, oil soak, and lotion) may be more effective in terms of clinical score of dryness when compared with no intervention or standard care. Studies were small and generally lacked methodological rigour, and information on effect sizes and precision was absent. More clinical trials are needed to guide practice; future studies should use a standard approach to measuring treatment effects and should include patient-reported outcomes, such as comfort and acceptability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Cowdell
- Birmingham City UniversityFaculty of Health, Education and Life SciencesCity South CampusWestbourne Road, EdgbastonBirminghamUKB15 3TN
| | - Yuri T Jadotte
- Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook UniversityDepartment of Family, Population and Preventive MedicineStony BrookNYUSA11794‐8434
| | - Steven J Ersser
- Bournemouth UniversityDepartment of Nursing ScienceRoom B401, 4th floor, Bournemouth House17 Christchurch RdBournemouthUKBH1 3LT
| | - Simon Danby
- The University of SheffieldSheffield Dermatology Research, Department of Infection, Immunity & Cardiovascular DiseaseBeech Hill RoadSheffieldUKS10 2RX
| | - Sandra Lawton
- Rotherham NHS Foundation TrustDepartment of DermatologyMoorgate RoadRotherhamUKS60 2UD
| | - Amanda Roberts
- Nottingham Support Group for Carers of Children with EczemaNottinghamUKNG5 4FG
| | - Judith Dyson
- City, University of LondonSchool of Health Sciences, Division of NursingLondonUK
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Surfactants are common ingredients in topical products, which can cause both irritant and allergic contact dermatitis. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of 12 common groups of surfactants and 12 common individual surfactants among products in each category in the American Contact Dermatitis Society Contact Allergen Management Program (CAMP). METHODS The American Contact Dermatitis Society CAMP was queried for the 12 surfactant groups and the 12 individual surfactants. RESULTS The laureth/pareth sulfate group was the most prevalent surfactant group in CAMP products (17.9%). Laureth/pareth sulfates were the most common surfactant group in all product categories, except household and eye care products. The betaine/sultaine group (13.5%) and glucosides (10.0%) were also found in a significant proportion of CAMP products. Oleamidopropyl dimethylamine has the highest positive reaction rate (3.5%) but was tied for the lowest prevalence (0.20%) of the 12 individual surfactants studied. In contrast, cocamidopropyl betaine has a lower positive reaction rate (1.6%) with a higher prevalence (10.4%). CONCLUSIONS Surfactants were commonly found across all product types in CAMP. This study provides important information on allergen and irritant exposures in care products.
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Martinez P, Allsman LA, Brakke KA, Hoyt C, Hayes J, Liang H, Neher W, Rui Y, Roberts AM, Moradifam A, Goldstein B, Anderson CT, Rasmussen CG. Predicting Division Planes of Three-Dimensional Cells by Soap-Film Minimization. Plant Cell 2018; 30:2255-2266. [PMID: 30150312 DOI: 10.1101/199885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
One key aspect of cell division in multicellular organisms is the orientation of the division plane. Proper division plane establishment contributes to normal plant body organization. To determine the importance of cell geometry in division plane orientation, we designed a three-dimensional probabilistic mathematical model to directly test the century-old hypothesis that cell divisions mimic soap-film minima. According to this hypothesis, daughter cells have equal volume and the division plane occurs where the surface area is at a minimum. We compared predicted division planes to a plant microtubule array that marks the division site, the preprophase band (PPB). PPB location typically matched one of the predicted divisions. Predicted divisions offset from the PPB occurred when a neighboring cell wall or PPB was directly adjacent to the predicted division site to avoid creating a potentially structurally unfavorable four-way junction. By comparing divisions of differently shaped plant cells (maize [Zea mays] epidermal cells and developing ligule cells and Arabidopsis thaliana guard cells) and animal cells (Caenorhabditis elegans embryonic cells) to divisions simulated in silico, we demonstrate the generality of this model to accurately predict in vivo division. This powerful model can be used to separate the contribution of geometry from mechanical stresses or developmental regulation in predicting division plane orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Martinez
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Lindy A Allsman
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Kenneth A Brakke
- Department of Mathematics, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania 17870
| | - Christopher Hoyt
- Center for Plant Cell Biology NSF-REU, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California 91711
| | - Jordan Hayes
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Hong Liang
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Wesley Neher
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16801
| | - Allyson M Roberts
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Amir Moradifam
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Bob Goldstein
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16801
| | - Carolyn G Rasmussen
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
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Martinez P, Allsman LA, Brakke KA, Hoyt C, Hayes J, Liang H, Neher W, Rui Y, Roberts AM, Moradifam A, Goldstein B, Anderson CT, Rasmussen CG. Predicting Division Planes of Three-Dimensional Cells by Soap-Film Minimization. Plant Cell 2018; 30:2255-2266. [PMID: 30150312 PMCID: PMC6241264 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.18.00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
One key aspect of cell division in multicellular organisms is the orientation of the division plane. Proper division plane establishment contributes to normal plant body organization. To determine the importance of cell geometry in division plane orientation, we designed a three-dimensional probabilistic mathematical model to directly test the century-old hypothesis that cell divisions mimic soap-film minima. According to this hypothesis, daughter cells have equal volume and the division plane occurs where the surface area is at a minimum. We compared predicted division planes to a plant microtubule array that marks the division site, the preprophase band (PPB). PPB location typically matched one of the predicted divisions. Predicted divisions offset from the PPB occurred when a neighboring cell wall or PPB was directly adjacent to the predicted division site to avoid creating a potentially structurally unfavorable four-way junction. By comparing divisions of differently shaped plant cells (maize [Zea mays] epidermal cells and developing ligule cells and Arabidopsis thaliana guard cells) and animal cells (Caenorhabditis elegans embryonic cells) to divisions simulated in silico, we demonstrate the generality of this model to accurately predict in vivo division. This powerful model can be used to separate the contribution of geometry from mechanical stresses or developmental regulation in predicting division plane orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Martinez
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Lindy A Allsman
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Kenneth A Brakke
- Department of Mathematics, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania 17870
| | - Christopher Hoyt
- Center for Plant Cell Biology NSF-REU, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California 91711
| | - Jordan Hayes
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Hong Liang
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Wesley Neher
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Yue Rui
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16801
| | - Allyson M Roberts
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Amir Moradifam
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Bob Goldstein
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16801
| | - Carolyn G Rasmussen
- Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
- Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
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Prieto Vidal N, Adeseun Adigun O, Pham TH, Mumtaz A, Manful C, Callahan G, Stewart P, Keough D, Thomas RH. The Effects of Cold Saponification on the Unsaponified Fatty Acid Composition and Sensory Perception of Commercial Natural Herbal Soaps. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092356. [PMID: 30223479 PMCID: PMC6225244 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Saponification is the process in which triglycerides are combined with a strong base to form fatty acid metal salts during the soap-making process. The distribution of unsaturated and saturated fatty acid determines the hardness, aroma, cleansing, lather, and moisturizing abilities of soaps. Plant extracts, such as rosemary, vegetable, and essential oils are frequently added to soaps to enhance quality and sensory appeal. Three natural soaps were formulated using cold saponification to produce a base or control bar (BB), hibiscus rosehip bar (H), and a forest grove bar (FG). Rosemary extract (R) or essential oil (A) blends were added as additives to each formulation prior to curing to evaluate the effects of natural plant additives on the lipid composition and sensory characteristics of these natural herbal soaps. A total of seven natural soaps, three without additives (BB, H, FG) and four with additives (BBR, HA, FGR, FGA), were manufactured and studied. The majority (86–99%) of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (5.0–7.0 µg/mg) remained unsaponified in the manufactured natural soaps regardless of feedstock used. Principal component analysis (PCA) analyses showed the unsaponifiable fatty acids were different in the hibiscus bar compared to the other bars. There was a very strong correlation between the content of unsaponified C18:3n3 and C18:1n9 in all natural soaps. These results indicate that unsaponified fatty acids are important contributors to the quality and overall sensory perception and preference of natural herbal soaps following manufacturing by cold saponification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Prieto Vidal
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Oludoyin Adeseun Adigun
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Thu Huong Pham
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Abira Mumtaz
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Charles Manful
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Grace Callahan
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Peter Stewart
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Dwayne Keough
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
| | - Raymond Horatio Thomas
- School of Science and the Environment/Boreal Ecosystem Research Facility, Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 20 University Drive, Corner Brook, NL A2H 5G4, Canada.
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Abstract
Several epidermal barrier functions, like skin barrier regeneration and antimicrobial response, are related to the acidic nature of the skin surface pH (ss-pH). However, the epidermal acidification is known to be fragile and it is commonly accepted that cosmetic products, especially soaps and skin cleansing products, can induce significant changes in ss-pH. As a consequence, epidermal barrier function and skin microflora are affected negatively. ss-pH even increases after a single washing procedure or after rinsing the skin with water alone. The skin pH recovery needs time up to several hours before it can reach the physiological level. For cosmetic-relevant skin conditions, skin disorders and specific consumer groups, maintaining of the acidic ss-pH is beneficial for epidermal physiology and cutaneous microflora. In this context, cleansing and skin care products with a pH level of 4.0-5.0 may be helpful. In addition, combining the acidic product pH level with the ideal mix of surfactants, thereby enhancing product compatibility and minimizing skin irritation and intolerance, is a major challenge for the future. Beyond innovative cleansing technology, further multifaceted cosmetic research is a prerequisite to get deeper knowledge on the interrelation of product pH level, surfactant composition and corneobiology.
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Abstract
In order to maintain skin in "good condition" one can use cosmetic products. Importantly, those skin care products should fulfil specific requirements for specific life phases and specific skin conditions. In this review, we focused on 2 different age groups - namely, infants and the elderly - as well as on 2 specific skin conditions occurring in both age groups - very dry skin (Xerosis) and hyperhydrated skin (diaper rash). The goal in both conditions should be to maintain skin surface in its physiological acidic state, which is in turn crucial for the permeability barrier function, stratum corneum integrity/cohesion and antimicrobial defense. Skin care products formulated with an effective buffer system at a more acidic pH, for example 4, may be the best option to improve the acid mantle and skin barrier function and thus keep the skin in "good condition."
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Coppotelli A. Safer Soap: A Look at Harmful Ingredients Found in Hand Cleansers. Occup Health Saf 2017; 86:75-77. [PMID: 30299009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, up to 40 percent of workers will suffer from occupational dermatitis at some point in their working lives.
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Mendes BR, Shimabukuro DM, Uber M, Abagge KT. Critical assessment of the pH of children's soap. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2016; 92:290-5. [PMID: 26844391 DOI: 10.1016/j.jped.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the pH value of children's antibacterial soaps and syndets used in children's baths and verify whether there is information regarding pH on the product label. METHODS Quantitative, cross-sectional, analytical observational study that included ninety soap samples, both in bar and liquid presentations, as follows: 67 children's soap (group 1), 17 antibacterial soaps (group 2), and 6 syndets (group 3). Each sample had its pH measured after 1% dilution. In addition to descriptive statistics, the Pearson-Yates chi-squared test and Student's t-tests were applied, considering the minimal significance level of 5%. The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test, Fisher's exact test, and the Kruskal-Wallis test were used for inferential statistics. RESULTS The pH levels varied considerably between liquid and bar presentations, with lower levels (4.4-7.9) found for the liquids (p<0.05). Syndets showed pH levels close to the ideal (slightly acid) and the antibacterial soaps showed the highest pH levels (up to 11.34) (p<0.05). Only two of the soaps included in the study had information about their pH levels on the product packaging. CONCLUSIONS Knowledge of the pH of children's soap by doctors and users is important, considering the great pH variability found in this study. Moreover, liquid soaps, and especially syndets, are the most recommended for the sensitive skin of neonates and infants, in order to guarantee skin barrier efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marjorie Uber
- Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Kerstin Taniguchi Abagge
- Pediatric Dermatology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hospital de Clínicas, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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19
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Zhang G, McMullen RL, Kulcsar L. Investigation of hair dye deposition, hair color loss, and hair damage during multiple oxidative dyeing and shampooing cycles. J Cosmet Sci 2016; 67:1-11. [PMID: 27319056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Color fastness is a major concern for consumers and manufacturers of oxidative hair dye products. Hair dye loss results from multiple wash cycles in which the hair dye is dissolved by water and leaches from the hair shaft. In this study, we carried out a series of measurements to help us better understand the kinetics of the leaching process and pathways associated with its escape from the fiber. Hair dye leaching kinetics was measured by suspending hair in a dissolution apparatus and monitoring the dye concentration in solution (leached dye) with an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer. The physical state of dye deposited in hair fibers was evaluated by a reflectance light microscopy technique, based on image stacking, allowing enhanced depth of field imaging. The dye distribution within the fiber was monitored by infrared spectroscopic imaging of hair fiber cross sections. Damage to the ultrafine structure of the hair cuticle (surface, endocuticle, and cell membrane complex) and cortex (cell membrane complex) was determined in hair cross sections and on the hair fiber surface with atomic force microscopy. Using differential scanning calorimetry, we investigated how consecutive coloring and leaching processes affect the internal proteins of hair. Further, to probe the surface properties of hair we utilized contact angle measurements. This study was conducted on both pigmented and nonpigmented hair to gain insight into the influence of melanin on the hair dye deposition and leaching processes. Both types of hair were colored utilizing a commercial oxidative hair dye product based on pyrazole chemistry.
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Homem V, Silva E, Alves A, Santos L. Scented traces--Dermal exposure of synthetic musk fragrances in personal care products and environmental input assessment. Chemosphere 2015; 139:276-287. [PMID: 26150197 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.06.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Revised: 06/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic musks are organic compounds used as fragrance and fixative additives in several personal care products. Until now, little is known about their occurrence and distribution in these household commodities. However, this information is essential to perform a human dermal exposure assessment. Therefore, this study gives an overview on the levels of 12 synthetic musks in 140 personal care products from 7 different categories (body and hair wash, toilet soaps, shaving products, dentifrice products, deodorants/antiperspirants, moisturizers and perfumes). They were analysed by QuEChERS extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Detection limits were found between 0.01ngg(-1) (galaxolide) and 5.00ngg(-1) (musk xylene). Higher average concentrations of total synthetic musks were detected in perfumes (5245.05μgg(-1)) and shampoos (487.67μgg(-1)) for adults. Galaxolide, exaltolide and cashmeran were the most detected compounds. Combining these results with the daily usage amounts, an average daily dermal exposure of 75.69μgkgbw(-1)day(-1) for adults and 15.54μgkgbw(-1)day(-1) for babies/children was achieved. The main contributors for adult and babies/children dermal exposure were perfumes and lotions, respectively. About 40% of the adult daily dermal exposure is related to exaltolide, 30% galaxolide, and 15% tonalide, while for babies/children 96% occurs due to exaltolide. An estimate of the amount of musks discharged "down-the-drain" into the wastewater treatment systems through the use of toiletries was also performed. An average emission per capita of 6.7mgday(-1) was determined and galaxolide and exaltolide were the predominant musks in the effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Homem
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Eduardo Silva
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Lúcia Santos
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Wilhelm
- proDERM Institute for Applied Dermatological Research, Schenefeld/Hamburg, Germany
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22
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Pastore C, Lopez A, Mascolo G. Efficient conversion of brown grease produced by municipal wastewater treatment plant into biofuel using aluminium chloride hexahydrate under very mild conditions. Bioresour Technol 2014; 155:91-97. [PMID: 24434702 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.12.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Wastes produced by oil/water separation at the wastewater treatment plant of Bari West (Southern Italy) were taken, characterized and converted. About 12% of this material was composed of greases, mainly made of free fatty acids (50%) and soaps (34%), and was easily separable by the aqueous phase through a hot centrifugation. After chemical activation of this fatty fraction, a direct esterification was carried out under very mild conditions (320K and atmospheric pressure), converting more than 90% of the original free fatty acids into the respective methyl esters in less than 4h, by using AlCl3·6H2O. The activation energy correlated to the use of this catalyst was also calculated (Eaest=43.9kJmol(-1)). The very low cost of the biodiesel produced (0.45€L(-1)) and the associated relevant specific energy (5.02MJ kgFAMEs(-1)) make such a process a really sustainable and effective example of valorization of a waste.
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23
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Gambi CMC, Vannoni M, Sordini A, Molesini G. Monitoring the thinning dynamics of soap films by phase shift interferometry. The case of perfluoropolyether surfactants. Eur Phys J E Soft Matter 2014; 37:9. [PMID: 24562638 DOI: 10.1140/epje/i2014-14009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
An interferometric method to monitor the thinning process of vertical soap films from a water solution of surfactant materials is reported. Raw data maps of optical path difference introduced by the film are obtained by conventional phase shift interferometry. Off-line re-processing of such raw data taking into account the layered structure of soap films leads to an accurate measurement of the geometrical thickness. As an example of data acquisition and processing, the measuring chain is demonstrated on perfluoropolyether surfactants; the section profile of vertical films is monitored from drawing to black film state, and quantitative data on the dynamics of the thinning process are presented. The interferometric method proves effective to the task, and lends itself to further investigate the physical properties of soap films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia M C Gambi
- Department of Physics and CNISM, University of Florence, via G. Sansone 1, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy
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Park A. The dirt on soap. Time 2013; 182:21. [PMID: 24640401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
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25
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Yokooji T, Kurihara S, Murakami T, Chinuki Y, Takahashi H, Morita E, Harada S, Ishii K, Hiragun M, Hide M, Matsuo H. Characterization of causative allergens for wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis sensitized with hydrolyzed wheat proteins in facial soap. Allergol Int 2013; 62:435-45. [PMID: 23963475 DOI: 10.2332/allergolint.13-oa-0561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Japan, hydrolyzed wheat proteins (HWP) have been reported to cause wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA) by transcutaneous sensitization using HWP-containing soap. Patients develop allergic reactions not only with soap use, but also with exercise after the intake of wheat protein (WP). ω5-Gliadin and HMW-glutenin were identified as major allergens in conventional WP-WDEIA patients. However, the allergens in HWP-WDEIA have yet to be elucidated. METHODS Sera were obtained from 22 patients with HWP-sensitized WDEIA. The allergenic activities of HWP and six recombinant wheat gluten proteins, including α/β-, γ-, ω1,2- and ω5-gliadin and low- and high molecular weight (HMW)-glutenins, were characterized by immunoblot analysis and histamine releasing test. IgE-binding epitopes were identified using arrays of overlapping peptides synthesized on SPOTs membrane. RESULTS Immunoblot analysis showed that IgE antibodies (Abs) from HWP-WDEIA bound to α/β-, γ- and ω1,2-gliadin. Recombinant γ-gliadin induced significant histamine release from basophils in eight of 11 patients with HWP-WDEIA. An IgE-binding epitope "QPQQPFPQ" was identified within the primary sequence of γ-gliadin, and the deamidated peptide containing the "PEEPFP" sequence bound with IgE Abs more strongly compared to the native epitope-peptide. The epitope-peptide inhibited IgE-binding to HWP, indicating that the specific IgE to HWP cross-reacts with γ-gliadin. CONCLUSIONS HWP-WDEIA patients could be sensitized to HWP containing a PEEPFP sequence, and WDEIA symptoms after WP ingestion could partly be induced by γ-gliadin. These findings could be useful to help develop tools for diagnosis and desensitization therapy for HWP-WDEIA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoharu Yokooji
- Department of Pathophysiology and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
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Xu W, Song A, Dong S, Chen J, Hao J. A systematic investigation and insight into the formation mechanism of bilayers of fatty acid/soap mixtures in aqueous solutions. Langmuir 2013; 29:12380-12388. [PMID: 24028317 DOI: 10.1021/la403008d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Vesicles are the most common form of bilayer structures in fatty acid/soap mixtures in aqueous solutions; however, a peculiar bilayer structure called a "planar sheet" was found for the first time in the mixtures. In the past few decades, considerable research has focused on the formation theory of bilayers in fatty acid/soap mixtures. The hydrogen bond theory has been widely accepted by scientists to explain the formation of bilayers. However, except for the hydrogen bond, no other driving forces were proposed systematically. In this work, three kinds of weak interactions were investigated in detail, which could perfectly demonstrate the formation mechanism of bilayer structures in the fatty acid/soap mixtures in aqueous solutions. (i) The influence of hydrophobic interaction was detected by changing the chain length of fatty acid (C(n)H(2n+1)COOH), in which n = 10 to 18, the phase behavior was investigated, and the phase region was presented. With the help of cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) observations, deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance ((2)H NMR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements, the vesicles and planar sheets were determined. The chain length of C(n)H(2n+1)COOH has an important effect on the physical state of the hydrophobic chain, resulting in an obvious difference in the viscoelasticity of the solution samples. (ii) The existence of hydrogen bonds between fatty acids and their soaps in aqueous solutions was demonstrated by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and molecule dynamical simulation. From the pH measurements, the pH ranges of the bilayer formation were at the pKa values of fatty acids, respectively. (iii) Counterions can be embedded in the stern layer of the bilayers and screen the electrostatic repulsion between the COO(-) anionic headgroups. FT-IR characterization demonstrated a bidentate bridging coordination mode between counterions and carboxylates. The conductivity measurements provided the degree of counterion binding (β = 0.854), indicating the importance of the counterions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Aggregated Materials, Shandong University, Ministry of Education , Jinan 250100, P. R. China
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Luo X, Hu S, Zhang X, Li Y. Thermochemical conversion of crude glycerol to biopolyols for the production of polyurethane foams. Bioresour Technol 2013; 139:323-329. [PMID: 23665694 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to produce biopolyols from crude glycerol via a novel thermochemical conversion process. The effect of operational parameters, including sulfuric acid loading and reaction temperature and time, on the properties of the produced biopolyols was investigated. Biopolyols produced under preferred reaction conditions of 200°C, 90 min, and 3% sulfuric acid loading showed a hydroxyl number of around 481 mg KOH/g, an acid number of around 5mg KOH/g, and a viscosity of around 25.0 Pas. The resulting polyurethane (PU) foams showed a compressive strength of around 184.5 kPa and a density of around 43.0 kg/m(3), comparable to those of some petroleum-based analogs. Characterization of the biopolyols via pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), gas chromatography (GC), and thermogravimetrical analysis (TGA) showed that the major reactions of this process were the formation of monoglycerides and diglycerides through the esterification and transesterification of different components in crude glycerol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Luo
- Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, 1680 Madison Ave., Wooster, OH 44691-4096, USA
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28
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Rengstl D, Diat O, Klein R, Kunz W. Influence of chain length and double bond on the aqueous behavior of choline carboxylate soaps. Langmuir 2013; 29:2506-2519. [PMID: 23368901 DOI: 10.1021/la304431c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In preceding studies, we demonstrated that choline carboxylates ChC(m) with alkyl chain lengths of m = 12 - 18 are highly water-soluble (for m = 12, soluble up to 93 wt % soap and 0 °C). In addition, choline soaps are featured by an extraordinary lyotropic phase behavior. With decreasing water concentration, the following phases were found: micellar phase (L(1)), discontinuous cubic phase (I(1)' and I(1)"), hexagonal phase (H(1)), bicontinuous cubic phase (V(1)), and lamellar phase (L(α)). The present work is also focused on the lyotropic phase behavior of choline soaps but with shorter alkyl chains or different alkyl chain properties. We have investigated the aqueous phase behavior of choline soaps with C(8) and C(10) chain-lengths (choline octanoate and choline decanoate) and with a C(18) chain-length with a cis-double bond (choline oleate). We found that choline decanoate follows the lyotropic phase behavior of the longer-chain homologues mentioned above. Choline octanoate in water shows no discontinuous cubic phases, but an extended, isotropic micellar solution phase. In addition, choline octanoate is at the limit between a surfactant and a hydrotrope. The double bond in choline oleate leads also to a better solubility in water and a decrease of the solubilization temperature. It also influences the Gaussian curvature of the aggregates which results in a loss of discontinuous cubic phases in the binary phase diagram. The different lyotropic mesophases were identified by the penetration scan technique with polarizing light microscope and visual observations. To clarify the structural behavior small (SAXS) and wide (WAXS) angle X-ray scattering were performed. To further characterize the extended, isotropic micellar solution phase in the binary phase diagram of choline octanoate viscosity and conductivity measurements were also carried out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Rengstl
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstrasse 31, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
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Tyski S, Bocian E, Zawistowska A, Mrówka A, Kruszewska H, Grzybowska W, Zareba T. [Microbiological characteristics of selected liquid soaps for hands washing]. Med Dosw Mikrobiol 2013; 65:207-226. [PMID: 24432560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION According to common belief, supported by the authority of the World Health Organization - WHO, the common (social) hand washing is the simplest, cheapest and the most effective way of reduction the hospital-acquired infections. For this purpose products of"liquid soaps", present in a large number on the market, are most often applied. Microbiological status (microbiological purity and antimicrobial activity) of"liquid soaps" available on the Polish market is not known, because relevant routinely studies have not been performed. Only the antibacterial and / or antifungal activity of certain formulations is sometimes assessed, especially when the manufacturer suggests the standardized application of the products for surgical or hygienic procedures. The aim of this study was to determine the microbiological quality, especially microbiological purity and antimicrobial activity of the selected hands washing products, presents on the Polish market. METHODS The 12 selected commercial products, available on the market in Poland, dedicated for hands washing were included into study. Microbiological purity test was carried out in accordance with the Polish Pharmacopoeia (FP) monograph (FP monograph numbers correspond to numbers of the European Pharmacopoeia monograph- Ph. Eur.) No 2.6.12 "Microbiological examination of non-sterile products: microbial enumaration tests", and the monograph of FP No. 2.6.13 "Microbiological examination of non-sterile products: test for specified microorganisms". The following physico-chemical properties of soaps were examined: the pH of the formulations was measured according to the monograph FP No. 2.2.3. "Potentiometric determination of pH", the density of products was assayed according to the monograph FPNo. 2.2.5. "Relative density" and determination the water activity was performed by monograph FP No 2.9.39 "Water-solid interactions: determination of sorption-desorption isotherms and of water activity". Next, antibacterial and antifungal protection was determined in accordance with the monograph FP No 5.1.3. "Efficacy of antimicrobial preservation". The study of antimicrobial activity was carried out in accordance with PN-EN 1040 "Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics - Quantitative suspension test for the evaluation of basic bactericidal activity of chemical disinfectants and antiseptics - Test method and requirements (phase 1)". Finally, using the "time-kill" method the survival of microorganisms after different contact times of the products with bacteria and fungi were determined. RESULTS All the examined products showed a very high microbiological purity. None of the formulations was characterized by a high acidity or alkalinity. All the analyzed products were slightly thicker than water, but such density of the preparation does not seem to be important parameter in the growth of microorganisms. The results of water activity estimation - the parameter indicating the presence of free, not chemically bound water stimulating microbes growth - do not show that low water content in the preparation may inhibit bacteria and fungi growth. Taking into consideration the antimicrobial protection of the products demonstrated in the tests carried out in accordance within FP monograph No 5.1.3. and PN-EN 1040, and analysing curves indicating killing rate of bacteria and fungi obtained by "time-kill" method, the microorganisms contaminating the products generally should not multiply in their environment, and gradually they die - what can take many hours or even days. CONCLUSIONS The cases of bacterial infections connected with the usage of non-medical liguid soaps, applied in the health care units and described in the literature, should be considered as related rather to contamination of plastic packaging and dosage system, then to contamination of preparation itself inside the package. It was proved, that in all tested products amount of contaminating microbes diminishes in time. The dynamics of this process depends on the microorganisms character - bacteria dies quicker then fungi. The special attention should be given to washing, cleaning and disinfection of preparation dispensing systems, to avoid microbial contamination of product doses applied directly on the hands. It should be emphasized that only formulations containing antimicrobial agents in an appropriate amount, eliminate microorganisms from the skin surface fast and effectively. In case of hygienic and surgical procedures following the standardized manner in order to obtain required reduction rate of microorganisms in a short time - only products complying with appropriate EN standards are suitable. For these puroposes, the popular "liquid soaps" should not be used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Tyski
- Zaklad Mikrobiologii Farmaceutycznej, Warszawski Uniwersytet Medyczny
| | - Ewa Bocian
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
| | - Anna Zawistowska
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
| | - Agnieszka Mrówka
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
| | - Hanna Kruszewska
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
| | - Wanda Grzybowska
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
| | - Tomasz Zareba
- Zaklad Antybiotyków i Mikrobiologii, Narodowy Instytut Leków, Warszawa
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Abstract
Wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA) is a specific form of wheat allergy typically induced by exercise after ingestion of wheat products. Wheat ω-5 gliadin is a major allergen associated with conventional WDEIA, and detection of serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) specific to recombinant ω-5 gliadin is a reliable method for its diagnosis. Recently, an increased incidence of a new subtype of WDEIA, which is likely to be sensitized via a percutaneous and/or rhinoconjunctival route to hydrolyzed wheat protein (HWP), has been observed. All of the patients with this new subtype had used the same brand of soap, which contained HWP. Approximately half of these patients developed contact allergy several months later and subsequently developed WDEIA. In each of these patients, contact allergy with soap exposure preceded food ingestion-induced reactions. Other patients directly developed generalized symptoms upon ingestion of wheat products. The predominant observed symptom of the new WDEIA subtype was angioedema of the eyelids; a number of patients developed anaphylaxis. This new subtype of WDEIA has little serum ω-5 gliadin-specific serum IgE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Chinuki
- Department of Dermatology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, Japan. −u.ac.jp
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Kirstetter G, Raufaste C, Celestini F. Jet impact on a soap film. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys 2012; 86:036303. [PMID: 23031009 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.86.036303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Revised: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We experimentally investigate the impact of a liquid jet on a soap film. We observe that the jet never breaks the film and that two qualitatively different steady regimes may occur. The first one is a refractionlike behavior obtained at small incidence angles when the jet crosses the film and is deflected by the film-jet interaction. For larger incidence angles, the jet is absorbed by the film, giving rise to a new class of flows in which the jet undulates along the film with a characteristic wavelength. Besides its fundamental interest, this paper presents a different way to guide a micrometric flow of liquid in the inertial regime and to probe foam stability submitted to violent perturbations at the soap film scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffroy Kirstetter
- Laboratoire de Physique de la Matière Condensée, CNRS UMR 7336, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis, 06108 Nice, France
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Kołodziejczyk MK, Zgoda MM. [The influence of macromolecular excipients on the process of mass transfer at the boundary phase from a model anti-dandruff preparation into the external compartment under in vitro conditions]. Polim Med 2012; 42:79-88. [PMID: 22783736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of the research was the application assessment of a model preparation--anti-dandruff emulsion. The experiments was conducted under in vitro conditions using of a model system of human skin, which are cellulose dialysis membranes with a standardized pore size. The behaviour of the preparation on the dialysis membrane was analyzed, and the degree of film formation performing the function of a protective barrier was evaluated after gentle rinsing with tepid water without cleaning agents. It was checked whether the product layer remaining on the membrane product layer does not block diffusion and penetration processes. Additionally, an attempt to assess the character of the layer with the use of a hydrophilic marker was made. MATERIALS AND METHODS Model anti-dandruff emulsion, Servapor Dialysis Tubing 100 dialysis membranes with a wall thickness d = 0.1 mm and a declared pore diameter phi = 25 A degrees, sodium chloride, purified water--assessment of the residue level of the analyzed preparation on the dialysis membrane. Examination on the marker diffusion through the dialysis membrane covered with the model anti-dandruff preparation, Approximation of the obtained results. RESULTS The first phase of the experiment was the preparation of dialysis membranes for the adsorption process of a model anti-dandruff preparation, then its adsorption, rinsing with tepid water and the measurement of residue level of the product on the membrane control. It has been observed that the mass of the membrane on which the preparation was applied increased in relation to the membrane from a control sample. The mass increase of the membrane in a research sample is accompanied with the increase of its thickness caused by the adsorbed amount of the product and water on the membrane. The diffusion through the membrane in a control sample turned out to be slightly slower what may indicate the character of the membrane residue of the model anti-dandruff preparation. CONCLUSIONS; The technology of model anti-dandruff emulsion enables the formation of a layer forming a specific protective barrier on the surface of the dialysis membrane. The presence of the layer of model anti-dandruff emulsion on the membrane is confirmed by mean values of mass and thickness increase of the dialysis membrane. The hydrophobic diffusion layer is of a variable character. The properly applied emulsion under "in vivo" conditions might fill voids of the corneal layer of epidermis creating a structure of a film character performing the function of a protective barrier. On the basis of the in vitro assessment, the therapeutic effectiveness under in vivo conditions may be concluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Krzysztof Kołodziejczyk
- Zakład Technologii Postaci Leku, Katedra Farmacji Stosowanej, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Łodzi, ul. Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151 Łódź.
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D'Erme AM, Francalanci S, Milanesi N, Ricci L, Gola M. Contact dermatitis due to dipentene and pine oil in an automobile mechanic. Occup Environ Med 2011; 69:452. [PMID: 22146991 DOI: 10.1136/oemed-2011-100446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Romero-Franco M, Hernández-Ramírez RU, Calafat AM, Cebrián ME, Needham LL, Teitelbaum S, Wolff MS, López-Carrillo L. Personal care product use and urinary levels of phthalate metabolites in Mexican women. Environ Int 2011; 37:867-71. [PMID: 21429583 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2010] [Revised: 01/24/2011] [Accepted: 02/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Sources of phthalates other than Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) related products are scarcely documented in Mexico. The objective of our study was to explore the association between urinary levels of nine phthalate metabolites and the use of personal care products. Subjects included 108 women who participated as controls in an ongoing population-based case-control study of environmental factors and genetic susceptibility to breast cancer in northern Mexico. Direct interviews were performed to inquire about sociodemographic characteristics, reproductive history, use of personal care products, and diet. Phthalate metabolites measured in urine by high performance liquid chromatography-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry were monoethyl phthalate (MEP), monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP), mono-3-carboxypropyl phthalate (MCPP) as well as mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), mono-2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl phthalate (MEOHP), mono-2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl phthalate (MEHHP), mono-2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl phthalate (MECPP) that are metabolites of di-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). Detectable urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites varied from 75% (MEHP) to 100% (MEP, MBP, MEOHP, MEHHP and MECPP). Medians of urinary concentrations of some phthalate metabolites were significantly higher among users of the following personal care products compared to nonusers: body lotion (MEHHP, MECPP and sum of DEHP metabolites (ΣDEHP)), deodorant (MEHP and ΣDEHP), perfume (MiBP), anti-aging facial cream (MEP, MBP and MCPP) and bottled water (MCPP, MEHHP and MEOHP). Urinary concentrations of MEP showed a positive relationship with the number of personal care products used. Our results suggest that the use of some personal care products contributes to phthalate body burden that deserves attention due to its potential health impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Romero-Franco
- Center of Population Health Research, National Institute of Public Health, Mexico, Avenida Universidad No. 655, Col. Santa María Ahuacatitlán, Cerrada los Pinos y Caminera, CP 62100, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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Mendow G, Veizaga NS, Querini CA. Ethyl ester production by homogeneous alkaline transesterification: influence of the catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2011; 102:6385-6391. [PMID: 21339065 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.01.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2010] [Revised: 01/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the process for ethyl ester production is studied using refined sunflower oil, and NaOH, KOH, CH(3)ONa, and CH(3)OK, as catalysts. In all cases, the reaction is carried out in a single reaction step. The best conversion is obtained when the catalyst is either sodium methoxide or potassium methoxide. We found that during the transesterification with ethanol, soap formation is more important than in the case of methanol. The saponification reaction consumes an important fraction of the catalyst. The amount of catalyst consumed by this reaction is 100% in the case of using hydroxides as catalyst (KOH or NaOH), and 25%, and 28% when using CH(3)ONa and CH(3)OK as catalysts, respectively. Ethanol increases the catalyst solubility in the oil-ethyl ester phase, thus accelerating the saponification reaction. It is possible to obtain high conversions in a one-step reaction, with a total glycerine concentration close to 0.25%.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mendow
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Catálisis y Petroquímica-INCAPE-(FIQ-UNL, CONICET), Santiago del Estero 2654, 3000 Santa Fe, Argentina
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Abstract
Abstract
The surface tensions of 1,16-hexadecane disodium sulphate in 0.001, 0.2 and 1.0M l.−1 sodium chloride solutions have been determined by the Wilhelmy plate method. Considerable ageing effects were noted. The minimum molecular areas calculated were 95, 88 and 86 sq. Å respectively in the three salt solutions. The lowering of the surface tension was not as great as that caused by sodium dodecyl sulphate, and the hydrocarbon chain linking the two head groups in 1,16-hexadecane disodium sulphate appeared to prevent very close packing in the surface layer.
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Hernández-Leal L, Temmink H, Zeeman G, Buisman CJN. Removal of micropollutants from aerobically treated grey water via ozone and activated carbon. Water Res 2011; 45:2887-96. [PMID: 21453950 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Ozonation and adsorption onto activated carbon were tested for the removal micropollutants of personal care products from aerobically treated grey water. MilliQ water spiked with micropollutants (100-1600 μgL(-1)) was ozonated at a dosing rate of 1.22. In 45 min, this effectively removed (>99%): Four parabens, bisphenol-A, hexylcinnamic aldehyde, 4-methylbenzylidene-camphor (4MBC), benzophenone-3 (BP3), triclosan, galaxolide and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate. After 60 min, the removal efficiency of benzalkonium chloride was 98%, tonalide and nonylphenol 95%, octocrylene 92% and 2-phenyl-5-benzimidazolesulfonic acid (PBSA) 84%. Ozonation of aerobically treated grey water at an applied ozone dose of 15 mgL(-1), reduced the concentrations of octocrylene, nonylphenol, triclosan, galaxolide, tonalide and 4-methylbenzylidene-camphor to below limits of quantification, with removal efficiencies of at least 79%. Complete adsorption of all studied micropollutants onto powdered activated carbon (PAC) was observed in batch tests with milliQ water spiked with 100-1600 μgL(-1) at a PAC dose of 1.25 gL(-1) and a contact time of 5 min. Three granular activated carbon (GAC) column experiments were operated to treat aerobically treated grey water. The operation of a GAC column with aerobically treated grey water spiked with micropollutants in the range of 0.1-10 μgL(-1) at a flow of 0.5 bed volumes (BV)h(-1) showed micropollutant removal efficiencies higher than 72%. During the operation time of 1728 BV, no breakthrough of TOC or micropollutants was observed. Removal of micropollutants from aerobically treated grey water was tested in a GAC column at a flow of 2 BVh(-1). Bisphenol-A, triclosan, tonalide, BP3, galaxolide, nonylphenol and PBSA were effectively removed even after a stable TOC breakthrough of 65% had been reached. After spiking the aerobically treated effluent with micropollutants to concentrations of 10-100 μgL(-1), efficient removal to below limits of quantification continued for at least 1440 BV. Both ozonation and adsorption are suitable techniques for the removal of micropollutants from aerobically treated grey water.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Hernández-Leal
- Wetsus, Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.
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Cantarero S, Zafra-Gómez A, Ballesteros O, Navalón A, Reis MS, Saraiva PM, Vílchez JL. Environmental monitoring study of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates and insoluble soap in Spanish sewage sludge samples. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 2011; 46:617-626. [PMID: 21526451 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2011.562857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In this work we present a monitoring study of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) and insoluble soap performed on Spanish sewage sludge samples. This work focuses on finding statistical relations between LAS concentrations and insoluble soap in sewage sludge samples and variables related to wastewater treatment plants such as water hardness, population and treatment type. It is worth to mention that 38 samples, collected from different Spanish regions, were studied. The statistical tool we used was Principal Component Analysis (PC), in order to reduce the number of response variables. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and a non-parametric test such as the Kruskal-Wallis test were also studied through the estimation of the p-value (probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed, assuming that the null hypothesis is true) in order to study possible relations between the concentration of both analytes and the rest of variables. We also compared LAS and insoluble soap behaviors. In addition, the results obtained for LAS (mean value) were compared with the limit value proposed by the future Directive entitled "Working Document on Sludge". According to the results, the mean obtained for soap and LAS was 26.49 g kg(-1) and 6.15 g kg(-1) respectively. It is worth noting that LAS mean was significantly higher than the limit value (2.6 g kg(-1)). In addition, LAS and soap concentrations depend largely on water hardness. However, only LAS concentration depends on treatment type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Cantarero
- Research Group of Analytical Chemistry and Life Sciences, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Boonchai W, Iamtharachai P. The pH of commonly available soaps, liquid cleansers, detergents and alcohol gels. Dermatitis 2010; 21:154-156. [PMID: 20487658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of a cleanser certainly has an impact on skin condition. Dermatologists always need to recommend a cleanser to patients with hand dermatitis or sensitive skin; particularly during the outbreak of swine (AH1N1 virus) influenza, frequent hand washing and alcohol gel cleansing were greatly recommended. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to evaluate the pH of various commonly available cleansers and alcohol gels on the market to assess patient comfort in using such products and to make good recommendations to our patients. METHODS Multiple brands of liquid cleansers, dishwashing liquids, soaps, laundry detergents, and alcohol gels commonly available on the market were assessed for pH by using a pH meter and pH-indicator strips. The pH assessment imitated real-life conditions by diluting each cleanser with tap water and then comparing the changed pH. RESULTS The pH levels of liquid cleansers, dishwashing liquids, a beauty bar, and alcohol gels were acidic to neutral and compatible with normal skin pH. Most bar soaps, baby soaps, and powdered laundry detergents had a pH in the alkali range. The pH of concentrated cleansers was slightly different from that of their dissolved forms. CONCLUSION Regarding the antiseptic property and pH of the cleansers, alcohol gels with moisturizers appeared to be the best hand cleansers to recommend to our patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waranya Boonchai
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Russell K, Jacob SE. Sodium hydroxymethylglycinate. Dermatitis 2010; 21:109-110. [PMID: 20233550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Sodium hydroxymethylglycinate (SHMG) is a preservative used in many commercially available products, including shampoos, conditioners, soaps, moisturizers, body sprays, baby wipes, room sprays, cleaning agents, and pesticides. It is in a class of chemicals known as formaldehyde-releasing preservatives. Notably, members of this class have been associated with allergic contact dermatitis, possibly due to the agents themselves, the formaldehyde they release, or both. Studies on SHMG in animals have demonstrated potential for sensitization and dermatitis, and formaldehyde-allergic patients have been reported to improve when products containing SHMG are avoided. Patients and providers need to be aware of this preservative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Russell
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, San Diego, CA, USA
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Athalye SK, Garcia RA, Wen Z. Use of biodiesel-derived crude glycerol for producing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by the fungus Pythium irregulare. J Agric Food Chem 2009; 57:2739-44. [PMID: 19265450 DOI: 10.1021/jf803922w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Crude glycerol is a major byproduct for the biodiesel industry. Producing value-added products through microbial fermentation on crude glycerol provides opportunities to utilize a large quantity of this byproduct. The objective of this study is to explore the potential of using crude glycerol for producing eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) by the fungus Pythium irregulare . When P. irregulare was grown in medium containing 30 g/L crude glycerol and 10 g/L yeast extract, EPA yield and productivity reached 90 mg/L and 14.9 mg/L x day, respectively. Adding pure vegetable oils (flaxseed oil and soybean oil) to the culture greatly enhanced the biomass and the EPA production. This enhancement was due to the oil absorption by the fungal cells and elongation of shorter chain fatty acids (e.g., linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid) into longer chain fatty acid (e.g., EPA). The major impurities contained in crude glycerol, soap and methanol, were inhibitory to fungal growth. Soap can be precipitated from the liquid medium through pH adjustment, whereas methanol can be evaporated from the medium during autoclaving. The glycerol-derived fungal biomass contained about 15% lipid, 36% protein, and 40% carbohydrate, with 9% ash. In addition to EPA, the fungal biomass was also rich in the essential amino acids lysine, arginine, and leucine, relative to many common feedstuffs. Elemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma showed that aluminum, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, silicon, sodium, sulfur, and zinc were present in the biomass, whereas no heavy metals (such as mercury and lead) were detected. The results show that it is feasible to use crude glycerol for producing fungal biomass that can serve as EPA-fortified food or feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sneha K Athalye
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
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Abstract
Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) is the principal color ingredient in henna, a color additive approved with limitations for coloring hair by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under 21 CFR 73.2190. In 2002, the scientific committee on cosmetics and non-food products (SCCNFP), now known as the scientific committee for consumer products (SCCP), evaluated the safety of lawsone as a coloring agent in hair dye products of the European Union (EU). The SCCNFP concluded that lawsone was mutagenic and not suitable for use as a hair coloring agent. As a result, studies were conducted to measure the extent of lawsone absorption through human skin. Lawsone skin absorption was determined from two hair coloring products and two shampoo products, all containing henna. [(14)C]-Lawsone (sp. act. 22.9 mCi/mmol) was added to each commercial product and the products were applied to dermatomed, nonviable human skin mounted in flow-through diffusion cells perfused with a physiological buffer (HEPES-buffered Hanks' balanced salt solution, pH 7.4). Products remained on the skin for 5 minutes (shampoos) and 1 hour (hair color paste). For the henna hair paste products, 0.3 and 1.3% of the applied dose was absorbed into the receptor fluid in 24 hours while 2.2 and 4.0% remained in the skin. For both henna shampoo products, 0.3% of the applied dose was absorbed into the receptor fluid at 24 hours while 3.6 and 6.8% remained in the skin. For all products, most of the lawsone applied was washed from the surface of the skin (83-102%) at the end of the exposure period. Extended absorption studies were conducted for 72 hours to determine if skin levels of lawsone in the 24 hour studies might eventually be percutaneously absorbed. These studies determined that the majority of the lawsone remained in the skin with only a small but significant increase (for three out of four products) in receptor fluid values. Therefore, it appears that receptor fluid values would give a good estimate of lawsone absorption for an exposure estimate and that skin levels of lawsone need not be included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E K Kraeling
- Office of Cosmetics and Colors, US Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
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43
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Abstract
The toxicity of fatty acid salts to German, Blattella germanica (L.), and American cockroaches, Periplaneta americana (L.), was evaluated. Potassium and sodium laurate caused up to 95% mortality of German cockroaches and 100% mortality of American cockroaches. Even-numbered potassium fatty acid salts, C8-C18 were assessed for toxicity at 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2% concentrations by a 30-s immersion of cockroaches. The more soluble of the fatty acid salts at 2% concentration caused 65-95% mortality of German cockroaches and 100% mortality of American cockroaches. Potassium oleate, C18, was most toxic to both German (LC50 = 0.36%) and American (LC50 = 0.17%) cockroaches. Fatty acid salt solutions on a substrate were tested by placing cockroaches in contact with treated floor tiles immediately after application (wet) or after the solutions had dried. Sodium laurate and potassium caprate caused mortality of German (62 +/- 17.4 and 58 +/- 12.6%, respectively) and American cockroaches (52 +/- 18.5 and 28 +/- 4.9%, respectively) on wet tiles, whereas potassium oleate caused mortality of German cockroaches (67 +/- 14.1%) only. Dry fatty acids caused no mortality among exposed cockroaches. Fatty acid salt solutions can be effective in killing German and American cockroaches but only when insects are thoroughly wetted with 1-2% fatty acid salt solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W Baldwin
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0620, USA.
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Tavakoli O, Yoshida H. Application of sub-critical water technology for recovery of heavy metal ions from the wastes of Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. Sci Total Environ 2008; 398:175-184. [PMID: 18452973 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2007] [Revised: 03/04/2008] [Accepted: 03/04/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Sub-critical water (sub-CW) technology was used as a new technology with environmental and financial benefits for the recovery of harmful heavy metal ions Cd (II), Zn (II), Cu (II), Fe (II), Mn (II) and Ni (II) in the waste of Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis. The metals are responsible for environmental problems owing to the large amount of the waste. This study proposes a new method using sub-CW treatment to recover the metal ions from scallop waste and simultaneously produce harmless and valuable materials. Reactions were conducted in a temperature range of 473-653 K and for reaction times of 1-60 min. After the sub-CW reaction, four phases existed: an oil phase, metal-soap phase, aqueous phase and solid residual. Some oil was hydrolyzed by the sub-CW reaction and converted to free fatty acids and glycerin. Free fatty acids reacted with metal ions and became metal-soap phase. Both the metal-soap phase and oil phase caught almost all metal ions at low and medium reaction temperatures (473-573 K) from original wastes, although the concentrations of the metal ions in the metal-soap phase were much higher than those in the oil phase. With increasing temperature, these two phases decomposed and the metal ions concentrated in solid residual (un-reacted waste). The binding mechanisms in the oil and metal-soap phases are discussed including the key functional groups involved. The maximum concentrations of metal ions in metal-soap phase were 7225 ppm (Fe), 862 ppm (Zn), and 800 ppm (Cd) at 573 K. The aqueous phase showed the lowest concentration of metal ions especially at temperatures above 550 K (~1.5 ppm).
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Tavakoli
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Osaka, Japan
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Roosens L, Covaci A, Neels H. Concentrations of synthetic musk compounds in personal care and sanitation products and human exposure profiles through dermal application. Chemosphere 2007; 69:1540-7. [PMID: 17631381 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.05.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2007] [Revised: 05/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic musks, such as 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) and 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-benzopyran (HHCB), musk ketone (MK) and musk xylene (MX), are used as an alternative for natural musk. Due to their widespread use, these synthetic compounds turned up in different environmental compartments, such as wastewater, human and animal tissues. Yet, little is known about their distribution and occurrence in personal care and household products, information needed in order to evaluate the different human exposure routes. This paper gives an overview of the synthetic musk levels in six different product categories: body lotions, perfumes, deodorants, hair care products, shower products and sanitation products. Especially body lotions, perfumes and deodorants contained high levels of synthetic musks. Maximum concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, MX and MK were 22 mg g(-1), 8 mg g(-1), 26 microg g(-1) and 0.5 microg g(-1), respectively. By combining these results with the average usage of consumer products, low-, medium- and high-exposure profiles through dermal application could be estimated. HHCB was the highest contributor to the total amount of synthetic musks in every exposure profile (18-23 700 microg d(-1)). Exposure to MK and MX did not increase substantially (10-20-fold) between low- and high-exposure profiles, indicating that these compounds cover a less broad range. In comparison, exposure to HHCB and AHTN increased up to 10 000 fold between low- and high-exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Roosens
- Toxicological Centre, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
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Besson S, Debrégeas G. Statics and dynamics of adhesion between two soap bubbles. Eur Phys J E Soft Matter 2007; 24:109-117. [PMID: 17955165 DOI: 10.1140/epje/i2007-10219-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
An original set-up is used to study the adhesive properties of two hemispherical soap bubbles put into contact. The contact angle at the line connecting the three films is extracted by image analysis of the bubbles profiles. After the initial contact, the angle rapidly reaches a static value slightly larger than the standard 120 degrees angle expected from Plateau rule. This deviation is consistent with previous experimental and theoretical studies: it can be quantitatively predicted by taking into account the finite size of the Plateau border (the liquid volume trapped at the vertex) in the free energy minimization. The visco-elastic adhesion properties of the bubbles are further explored by measuring the deviation Delta theta (d)(t) of the contact angle from the static value as the distance between the two bubbles supports is sinusoidally modulated. It is found to linearly increase with Delta r(c) / r(c) , where r(c) is the radius of the central film and Delta r(c) the amplitude of modulation of this length induced by the displacement of the supports. The in-phase and out-of-phase components of Delta theta (d)(t) with the imposed modulation frequency are systematically probed, which reveals a transition from a viscous to an elastic response of the system with a crossover pulsation of the order 1rad x s(-1). Independent interfacial rheological measurements, obtained from an oscillating bubble experiment, allow us to develop a model of dynamic adhesion which is confronted to our experimental results. The relevance of such adhesive dynamic properties to the rheology of foams is briefly discussed using a perturbative approach to the Princen 2D model of foams.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Besson
- Laboratoire de Physique Statistique, CNRS UMR 8550, 24, rue Lhomond, 75231, Paris Cedex 05, France.
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Infection risks at petting zoos...reducing infections: "antibacterial" soaps don't help...but certain equipment in childcare centers does. Child Health Alert 2007; 25:1-2. [PMID: 18273933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
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Stuart MCA, van Esch J, van de Pas JC, Engberts JBFN. Chain-length and solvent dependent morphological changes in sodium soap fibers. Langmuir 2007; 23:6494-7. [PMID: 17488042 DOI: 10.1021/la063633l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Sodium soap fibers with varying alkyl chain lengths were studied by cryotransmission electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetery in water and water-propylene glycol mixtures. The morphology of the lamellar fibers was found to be dependent on the chain length of the alkyl chain and the solvent polarity. Cryoelectron microscopy revealed that short-chain (C10-C14) sodium soaps have the bilayer plane perpendicular to the fiber width, which enables one to see the bilayer striations on the fibers, whereas long-chain (C16-C20) sodium soaps have bilayer planes parallel to the fiber width, and the bilayer striations are not visible. This change in morphology is accompanied by a change in dissolution enthalpy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc C A Stuart
- Formulation Unit, Unilever Research and Development, Olivier van Noordlaan120, 3133 AT Vlaardingen, The Netherlands.
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Zhu S, Pudney PDA, Heppenstall-Butler M, Butler MF, Ferdinando D, Kirkland M. Interaction of the acid soap of triethanolamine stearate and stearic acid with water. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:1016-24. [PMID: 17266256 DOI: 10.1021/jp0659047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Stearic acid and triethanolamine (TEA) in a molar ratio of 2:1 were mixed in aqueous solution at 80 degrees C and subsequently cooled to ambient temperature. The structural evolution of the resultant sample during storage was characterized by using light microscopy, Cryo-SEM, differential scanning calorimetery, pH, infrared spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and simultaneous small and wide-angle X-ray diffraction. It was found that a lamellar liquid crystalline phase was formed when stearic acid and TEA solution were mixed at 80 degrees C and multilamellar spheres of a few microns diameter were formed initially after cooling. A hydrolysis reaction (i.e., the reverse reaction of neutralization between stearic acid and TEA) occurred thereafter that caused the breakdown of the lamellar gel phase and the formation of platelet stearic acid crystals. Three polymorphs of stearic acid (defined following previous work as the A, C, and E forms) were formed as the result of hydrolysis reaction, which gave rise to a strong optically pearlescent appearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Zhu
- Corporate Research, Unilever R and D Colworth Park, Bedford, MK44 1LQ, United Kingdom.
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The handiwork of good health. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are more effective than antibacterial soaps, but don't give up on plain soap and water. Harv Health Lett 2007; 32:1-3. [PMID: 17323497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
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