3-[18F]Fluoro-para-hydroxyphenethylguanidine (3-[18F]pHPG) PET-A Novel Imaging Modality for Paraganglioma

Context

Functional positron emission tomography (PET) imaging for the characterization of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma (PCC/PGL) and for detection of metastases in malignant disease, offers valuable clinical insights that can significantly guide patient treatment.

Objective

This work aimed to evaluate a novel PET radiotracer, 3-[18F]fluoro-para-hydroxyphenethylguanidine (3-[18F]pHPG), a norepinephrine analogue, for its ability to localize PCC/PGL.

Methods

3-[18F]pHPG PET/CT whole-body scans were performed on 16 patients (8 male:8 female; mean age 47.6 ± 17.6 years; range, 19-74 years) with pathologically confirmed or clinically diagnosed PCC/PGL. After intravenous administration of 304 to 475 MBq (8.2-12.8 mCi) of 3-[18F]pHPG, whole-body PET scans were performed at 90 minutes in all patients. 3-[18F]pHPG PET was interpreted for abnormal findings consistent with primary tumor or metastasis, and biodistribution in normal organs recorded. Standardized uptake value (SUV) measurements were obtained for target lesions and physiological organ distributions.

Results

3-[18F]pHPG PET showed high radiotracer uptake and trapping in primary tumors, and metastatic tumor lesions that included bone, lymph nodes, and other solid organ sites. Physiological biodistribution was universally present in salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual), thyroid, heart, liver, adrenals, kidneys, and bladder. Comparison [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT was available in 10 patients and in all cases showed concordant distribution. Comparison [123I]meta-iodobenzylguanidine [123I]mIBG planar scintigraphy and SPECT/CT scans were available for 4 patients, with 3-[18F]pHPG showing a greater number of metastatic lesions.

Conclusion

We found the kinetic profile of 3-[18F]pHPG PET affords high activity retention within benign and metastatic PCC/PGL. Therefore, 3-[18F]pHPG PET imaging provides a novel modality for functional imaging and staging of malignant paraganglioma with advantages of high lesion affinity, whole-body coregistered computed tomography, and rapid same-day imaging.

Evaluating immunotherapeutic outcomes in triple-negative breast cancer with a cholesterol radiotracer in mice

Evaluating the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) remains an unmet challenge in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). The requirement for cholesterol in the activation and function of T cells led us to hypothesize that quantifying cellular accumulation of this molecule could distinguish successful from ineffective checkpoint immunotherapy. To analyze accumulation of cholesterol by T cells in the immune microenvironment of breast cancer, we leveraged the PET radiotracer, eFNP-59. eFNP-59 is an analog of cholesterol that our group validated as an imaging biomarker for cholesterol uptake in preclinical models and initial human studies. In immunocompetent mouse models of TNBC, we found that elevated uptake of exogenous labeled cholesterol analogs functions as a marker for T cell activation. When comparing ICI-responsive and -nonresponsive tumors directly, uptake of fluorescent cholesterol and eFNP-59 increased in T cells from ICI-responsive tumors. We discovered that accumulation of cholesterol by T cells increased in ICI-responding tumors that received anti-PD-1 checkpoint immunotherapy. In patients with TNBC, tumors containing cycling T cells had features of cholesterol uptake and trafficking within those populations. These results suggest that uptake of exogenous cholesterol analogs by tumor-infiltrating T cells allows detection of T cell activation and has potential to assess the success of ICI therapy.

Improved purification of cyclotron [68Ga]GaCl3 for the production of 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals

INTRODUCTION

Increased demand for NetSpot and Illuccix as requirement to receive the respective Lutathera and Pluvicto radiotherapies, and monitor subsequent response to treatment, have reinforced the need to develop alternative ways of producing gallium-68 (68Ga). Building on our efforts to produce 68Ga in a liquid target on a GE PETtrace, the goal of this work is to modify the current GE Gallium Chloride cassette using the FASTLab 2 synthesis module to produce [68Ga]GaCl3 equivalent to a 1.85 GBq generator and demonstrate compatibility with FDA-approved kits for production of 68Ga-labeled radiopharmaceuticals.

METHODS

68Ga was produced in a liquid target via the 68Zn(p,n)68Ga reaction. 68Ga was loaded onto various sizes of ZR resins (ZR Load, 0.3 mL, 1 mL, or 2 mL). The loading efficiency was determined using a dose calibrator. After washing with HNO3, 1.75 M HCl was used to elute the ZR Load resin through various sizes of a second ZR resin (ZR CG, 0 mL, 2 mL, 4 mL). Using 0.5 mL fractions, the elution profile was determined. Compatibility of the [68Ga]GaCl3 with NetSpot and Illuccix kits was investigated. Radiochemical purity (RCP) and 4 h stability were determined using radioTLC and radioHPLC. Using a modified [68Ga]GaCl3 cassette and new FASTLab program, 6 validation preparations were conducted using NetSpot and Illuccix kits for which RCP, stability, sterility and suitability were determined. Dual irradiation of 2 liquid targets was also performed, which was used to simultaneously prepare 1 NetSpot and 2 Illuccix kits by diluting the required activity with 0.1 M HCl.

RESULTS

The commercially available GE Cassette gave low RCP using commercial FDA kits. To optimize this, the loading efficiency onto ZR Load and the ratio of ZR resin used to load the initial activity and subsequent elution were explored. When using a 2:4 ratio of ZR Load to ZR CG, 97.89 % RCP was observed when a 3.8 mL [68Ga]GaCl3 solution was used. For Dotatate validation, 0.55 mL of buffer was added to 4.2 mL of [68Ga]GaCl3 which gave 1.35 GBq of formulated product. For Illuccix validation, [68Ga]GaCl3 was added to 2.5 mL of buffer which gave 1.52 GBq of [68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11. Formulated products passed package insert quality control (QC) requirements. When dual target irradiations were performed, 2.84 GBq was delivered to an external vial and used to label 1 NetSpot and 2 Illuccix kits simultaneously, and each kit also met or exceeded established QC criteria.

CONCLUSION

Methods are reported for using cyclotron-produced 68Ga from a liquid target in conjunction with FDA-approved NetSpot and Illucix kits. By employing a 2 mL ZR Load resin with a 4 mL ZR CG resin, adequate resolution between residual 68Zn and desired 68Ga was achieved. By modifying the FASTLab procedure to retain the final 2.5 mL of eluate from the ZR CG resin, [68Ga]GaCl3 equivalent to a new 1.85 GBq generator was obtained. This was suitable for labeling NetSpot and Illucix kits, resulting in high incorporation of 68Ga (RCP >95 %), which has not previously been demonstrated. Delivering [68Ga]GaCl3 into an external vial and diluting with 0.1 M HCl makes it possible to prepare multiple kits simultaneously. These new procedures should facilitate use of cyclotron-produced [68Ga]GaCl3 for clinical production going.

Zinc-Mediated Radiosynthesis of Unprotected Fluorine-18 Labelled α-Tertiary Amides

This report describes the development of a Zn(OTf)2 -mediated method for converting α-tertiary haloamides to the corresponding fluorine-18 labelled α-tertiary fluoroamides with no-carrier-added [18 F]tetramethylammonium fluoride. 1,5,7-Triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene is an essential additive for achieving high radiochemical conversion. Under the optimised conditions, radiofluorination proceeds at sterically hindered tertiary sites in high radiochemical conversions, yields, and purities. This method has been successfully automated and applied to access >200 mCi (>7.4 GBq) of several model radiofluorides. Mechanistic studies led to the development of a new, nucleophilic C-H radiofluorination process using N-sulphonyloxyamide substrates.

Tandem Iridium-Catalyzed C-H Borylation/Copper-Mediated Radiofluorination of Aromatic C-H Bonds with [18F]TBAF

Direct C-H functionalization of (hetero)aromatic C-H bonds with iridium-catalyzed borylation followed by copper-mediated radiofluorination of the in situ generated organoboronates affords fluorine-18 labeled aromatics in high radiochemical conversions and meta-selectivities. This protocol describes the benchtop reaction assembly of the C-H borylation and radiofluorination steps, which can be utilized for the fluorine-18 labeling of densely functionalized bioactive scaffolds.

Predicting efficacy of immunotherapy in mice with triple negative breast cancer using a cholesterol PET radiotracer

Predicting the response to cancer immunotherapy remains an unmet challenge in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and other malignancies. T cells, the major target of current checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapies, accumulate cholesterol during activation to support proliferation and signaling. The requirement of cholesterol for anti-tumor functions of T cells led us to hypothesize that quantifying cellular accumulation of this molecule could distinguish successful from ineffective checkpoint immunotherapy. To analyze accumulation of cholesterol by T cells in the immune microenvironment of breast cancer, we leveraged a novel positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer, FNP-59. FNP-59 is an analog of cholesterol that our group has validated as an imaging biomarker for cholesterol uptake in pre-clinical models and initial human studies. In immunocompetent mouse models of TNBC, we found that elevated uptake of exogenous labeled cholesterol analogs functions as a marker for T cell activation. When comparing immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-responsive EO771 tumors to non-responsive AT-3 tumors, we found significantly higher uptake of a fluorescent cholesterol analog in T cells of the ICI-responsive tumors both in vitro and in vivo. Using the FNP-59 radiotracer, we discovered that accumulation of cholesterol by T cells increased further in ICI-responding tumors that received ant-PD-1 checkpoint immunotherapy. We verified these data by mining single cell sequencing data from patients with TNBC. Patients with tumors containing cycling T cells showed gene expression signatures of cholesterol uptake and trafficking. These results suggest that uptake of exogenous cholesterol analogs by tumor-infiltrating T cells predict T cell activation and success of ICI therapy.

Strategies for the Production of [11C]LY2795050 for Clinical Use

This report describes a comparison of four different routes for the clinical-scale radiosynthesis of the κ-opioid receptor antagonist [11C]LY2795050. Palladium-mediated radiocyanation and radiocarbonylation of an aryl iodide precursor as well as copper-mediated radiocyanation of an aryl iodide and an aryl boronate ester have been investigated. Full automation of all four methods is reported, each of which provides [11C]LY2795050 in sufficient radiochemical yield, molar activity, and radiochemical purity for clinical use. The advantages and disadvantages of each radiosynthesis method are compared and contrasted.

Development of Fluorinated NP-59: A Revival of Cholesterol Use Imaging with PET

Imaging of cholesterol use is possible with the ¹³¹I scintiscanning/SPECT agent NP-59. This agent provided a noninvasive measure of adrenal function and steroid synthesis. However, iodine isotopes resulted in poor resolution, manufacturing challenges, and high radiation dosimetry to patients that have limited their use and clinical impact. A ¹⁸F analog would address these shortcomings while retaining the ability to image cholesterol use. The goal of this study was to prepare and evaluate a ¹⁸F analog of NP-59 to serve as a PET imaging agent for functional imaging of the adrenal glands based on cholesterol use. Previous attempts to prepare such an analog of NP-59 have proven elusive. Preclinical and clinical evaluation could be performed once the new fluorine analog of NP-59 production was established. Methods: The recent development of a new reagent for fluorination along with an improved route to the NP-59 precursor allowed for the preparation of a fluorine analog of NP-59, FNP-59. The radiochemistry for the ¹⁸F-radiolabeled ¹⁸F-FNP-59 is described, and rodent radiation dosimetry studies and in vivo imaging in New Zealand rabbits was performed. After in vivo toxicity studies, an investigational new drug approval was obtained, and the first-in-humans images with dosimetry using the agent were acquired. Results: In vivo toxicity studies demonstrated that FNP-59 is safe for use at the intended dose. Biodistribution studies with ¹⁸F-FNP-59 demonstrated a pharmacokinetic profile similar to that of NP-59 but with decreased radiation exposure. In vivo animal images demonstrated expected uptake in tissues that use cholesterol: gallbladder, liver, and adrenal glands. In this first-in-humans study, subjects had no adverse events and images demonstrated accumulation in target tissues (liver and adrenal glands). Manipulation of uptake was also demonstrated with patients who received cosyntropin, resulting in improved uptake. Conclusion: ¹⁸F-FNP-59 provided higher resolution images, with lower radiation dose to the subjects. It has the potential to provide a noninvasive test for patients with adrenocortical diseases.

Classics in Neuroimaging: Untangling the Role of Tau in Neurodegenerative Disorders Using Positron Emission Tomography

Imaging of misfolded proteins implicated in neurodegenerative disorders using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging has revolutionized dementia research. In this viewpoint, the development of radiotracers for tau PET is highlighted. We draw attention to key innovations that were essential to development of radiotracers for imaging tau, from early imaging agents, through the structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies required to minimize off-target binding of the newer probes in use today. We also highlight development of Tauvid, the first tau PET radiotracer approved by the US FDA for tau imaging in adult patients with cognitive impairment who are being evaluated for Alzheimer's disease.

Search for Subsolar-Mass Binaries in the First Half of Advanced LIGO's and Advanced Virgo's Third Observing Run

We report on a search for compact binary coalescences where at least one binary component has a mass between 0.2  M_{⊙} and 1.0  M_{⊙} in Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo data collected between 1 April 2019 1500 UTC and 1 October 2019 1500 UTC. We extend our previous analyses in two main ways: we include data from the Virgo detector and we allow for more unequal mass systems, with mass ratio q≥0.1. We do not report any gravitational-wave candidates. The most significant trigger has a false alarm rate of 0.14  yr^{-1}. This implies an upper limit on the merger rate of subsolar binaries in the range [220-24200]  Gpc^{-3} yr^{-1}, depending on the chirp mass of the binary. We use this upper limit to derive astrophysical constraints on two phenomenological models that could produce subsolar-mass compact objects. One is an isotropic distribution of equal-mass primordial black holes. Using this model, we find that the fraction of dark matter in primordial black holes in the mass range 0.2  M_{⊙}<m_{PBH}<1.0  M_{⊙} is f_{PBH}≡Ω_{PBH}/Ω_{DM}≲6%. This improves existing constraints on primordial black hole abundance by a factor of ∼3. The other is a dissipative dark matter model, in which fermionic dark matter can collapse and form black holes. The upper limit on the fraction of dark matter black holes depends on the minimum mass of the black holes that can be formed: the most constraining result is obtained at M_{min}=1  M_{⊙}, where f_{DBH}≡Ω_{DBH}/Ω_{DM}≲0.003%. These are the first constraints placed on dissipative dark models by subsolar-mass analyses.

Radiosynthesis and In Vivo Evaluation of Four Positron Emission Tomography Tracer Candidates for Imaging of Melatonin Receptors

Melatonin is a neurohormone that modulates several physiological functions in mammals through the activation of melatonin receptor type 1 and 2 (MT₁ and MT₂). The melatonergic system is an emerging therapeutic target for new pharmacological interventions in the treatment of sleep and mood disorders; thus, imaging tools to further investigate its role in the brain are highly sought-after. We aimed to develop selective radiotracers for in vivo imaging of both MT₁ and MT₂ by positron emission tomography (PET). We identified four previously reported MT ligands with picomolar affinities to the target based on different scaffolds which were also amenable for radiolabeling with either carbon-11 or fluorine-18. [¹¹C]UCM765, [¹¹C]UCM1014, [¹⁸F]3-fluoroagomelatine ([¹⁸F]3FAGM), and [¹⁸F]fluoroacetamidoagomelatine ([¹⁸F]FAAGM) have been synthesized in high radiochemical purity and evaluated in wild-type rats. All four tracers showed moderate to high brain permeability in rats with maximum standardized uptake values (SUV_max of 2.53, 1.75, 3.25, and 4.47, respectively) achieved 1-2 min after tracer administration, followed by a rapid washout from the brain. Several melatonin ligands failed to block the binding of any of the PET tracer candidates, while in some cases, homologous blocking surprisingly resulted in increased brain retention. Two ¹⁸F-labeled agomelatine derivatives were brought forward to PET scans in non-human primates and autoradiography on human brain tissues. No specific binding has been detected in blocking studies. To further investigate pharmacokinetic properties of the putative tracers, microsomal stability, plasma protein binding, log D, and membrane bidirectional permeability assays have been conducted. Based on the results, we conclude that the fast first pass metabolism by the enzymes in liver microsomes is the likely reason of the failure of our PET tracer candidates. Nevertheless, we showed that PET imaging can serve as a valuable tool to investigate the brain permeability of new therapeutic compounds targeting the melatonergic system.

Automated Synthesis of 18F-BCPP-EF {2-tert-Butyl-4-Chloro-5-{6-[2-(2[18F]fluoroethoxy)-Ethoxy]-Pyridin-3-ylmethoxy}-2H-Pyridazin-3-One for Imaging of Mitochondrial Complex 1 in Parkinson's Disease

Mitochondrial complex I (MC-I) is an essential component of brain bioenergetics and can be quantified and studied using positron emission tomography (PET). A specific high affinity ¹⁸F radiotracer for MC-I enables monitoring of neurodegenerative disease progression and pathology via PET imaging. To facilitate clinical research studies tracking MC-I activity in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases, a fully automated synthesis of the recently described 2-tert-butyl-4-chloro-5-{6-[2-(2[¹⁸F]fluoroethoxy)-ethoxy]-pyridin-3-ylmethoxy}-2H-pyridazin-3-one ([¹⁸F] BCPP-EF, [ ¹⁸ F]1) was developed. We report the first automated synthesis [¹⁸F]BCPP-EF using a green radiochemistry approach. The radiotracer was synthesized with good radiochemical yield, excellent radiochemical purity, and high molar activity.

Point Absorber Limits to Future Gravitational-Wave Detectors

High-quality optical resonant cavities require low optical loss, typically on the scale of parts per million. However, unintended micron-scale contaminants on the resonator mirrors that absorb the light circulating in the cavity can deform the surface thermoelastically and thus increase losses by scattering light out of the resonant mode. The point absorber effect is a limiting factor in some high-power cavity experiments, for example, the Advanced LIGO gravitational-wave detector. In this Letter, we present a general approach to the point absorber effect from first principles and simulate its contribution to the increased scattering. The achievable circulating power in current and future gravitational-wave detectors is calculated statistically given different point absorber configurations. Our formulation is further confirmed experimentally in comparison with the scattered power in the arm cavity of Advanced LIGO measured by in situ photodiodes. The understanding presented here provides an important tool in the global effort to design future gravitational-wave detectors that support high optical power and thus reduce quantum noise.

Synthesis and Evaluation of a Fluorine-18 Radioligand for Imaging Huntingtin Aggregates by Positron Emission Tomographic Imaging

Mutations in the huntingtin gene (HTT) triggers aggregation of huntingtin protein (mHTT), which is the hallmark pathology of neurodegenerative Huntington's disease (HD). Development of a high affinity 18F radiotracer would enable the study of Huntington's disease pathology using a non-invasive imaging modality, positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Herein, we report the first synthesis of fluorine-18 imaging agent, 6-(5-((5-(2,2-difluoro-2-(fluoro-18F)ethoxy)pyridin-2-yl)methoxy)benzo[d]oxazol-2-yl)-2-methylpyridazin-3(2H)-one ([18F]1), a radioligand for HD and its preclinical evaluation in vitro (autoradiography of post-mortem HD brains) and in vivo (rodent and non-human primate brain PET). [18F]1 was synthesized in a 4.1% RCY (decay corrected) and in an average molar activity of 16.5 ± 12.5 GBq/μmol (445 ± 339 Ci/mmol). [18F]1 penetrated the blood-brain barrier of both rodents and primates, and specific saturable binding in post-mortem brain slices was observed that correlated to mHTT aggregates identified by immunohistochemistry.

SNAr Radiofluorination with In Situ Generated [18F]Tetramethylammonium Fluoride

This report describes a method for the nucleophilic radiofluorination of (hetero)aryl chlorides, (hetero)aryl triflates, and nitroarenes using a combination of [¹⁸F]KF·K_2.2.2 and Me₄NHCO₃ for the in situ formation of a strongly nucleophilic fluorinating reagent (proposed to be [¹⁸F]Me₄NF). This method is applied to 24 substrates bearing diverse functional groups, and it generates [¹⁸F](hetero)aryl fluoride products in good to excellent radiochemical yields in the presence of ambient air/moisture. The reaction is applied to the preparation of ¹⁸F-labeled HQ-415 for potential (pre)clinical use.

Approaching the motional ground state of a 10-kg object

The motion of a mechanical object, even a human-sized object, should be governed by the rules of quantum mechanics. Coaxing them into a quantum state is, however, difficult because the thermal environment masks any quantum signature of the object's motion. The thermal environment also masks the effects of proposed modifications of quantum mechanics at large mass scales. We prepared the center-of-mass motion of a 10-kilogram mechanical oscillator in a state with an average phonon occupation of 10.8. The reduction in temperature, from room temperature to 77 nanokelvin, is commensurate with an 11 orders-of-magnitude suppression of quantum back-action by feedback and a 13 orders-of-magnitude increase in the mass of an object prepared close to its motional ground state. Our approach will enable the possibility of probing gravity on massive quantum systems.

Constraints on Cosmic Strings Using Data from the Third Advanced LIGO-Virgo Observing Run

We search for gravitational-wave signals produced by cosmic strings in the Advanced LIGO and Virgo full O3 dataset. Search results are presented for gravitational waves produced by cosmic string loop features such as cusps, kinks, and, for the first time, kink-kink collisions. A template-based search for short-duration transient signals does not yield a detection. We also use the stochastic gravitational-wave background energy density upper limits derived from the O3 data to constrain the cosmic string tension Gμ as a function of the number of kinks, or the number of cusps, for two cosmic string loop distribution models. Additionally, we develop and test a third model that interpolates between these two models. Our results improve upon the previous LIGO-Virgo constraints on Gμ by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude depending on the model that is tested. In particular, for the one-loop distribution model, we set the most competitive constraints to date: Gμ≲4×10^{-15}. In the case of cosmic strings formed at the end of inflation in the context of grand unified theories, these results challenge simple inflationary models.

Constraints on Cosmic Strings Using Data from the Third Advanced LIGO-Virgo Observing Run

We search for gravitational-wave signals produced by cosmic strings in the Advanced LIGO and Virgo full O3 dataset. Search results are presented for gravitational waves produced by cosmic string loop features such as cusps, kinks, and, for the first time, kink-kink collisions. A template-based search for short-duration transient signals does not yield a detection. We also use the stochastic gravitational-wave background energy density upper limits derived from the O3 data to constrain the cosmic string tension Gμ as a function of the number of kinks, or the number of cusps, for two cosmic string loop distribution models. Additionally, we develop and test a third model that interpolates between these two models. Our results improve upon the previous LIGO-Virgo constraints on Gμ by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude depending on the model that is tested. In particular, for the one-loop distribution model, we set the most competitive constraints to date: Gμ≲4×10^{-15}. In the case of cosmic strings formed at the end of inflation in the context of grand unified theories, these results challenge simple inflationary models.

Sequential Ir/Cu-Mediated Method for the Meta-Selective C-H Radiofluorination of (Hetero)Arenes

This article describes a sequential Ir/Cu-mediated process for the meta-selective C-H radiofluorination of (hetero)arene substrates. In the first step, Ir-catalyzed C(sp²)-H borylation affords (hetero)aryl pinacolboronate (BPin) esters. The intermediate organoboronates are then directly subjected to copper-mediated radiofluorination with [¹⁸F]tetrabutylammonium fluoride to afford fluorine-18 labeled (hetero)arenes in high radiochemical yield and radiochemical purity. This entire process is performed on a benchtop without Schlenk or glovebox techniques and circumvents the need to isolate (hetero)aryl boronate esters. The reaction was automated on a TracerLab FX_FN module with 1,3-dimethoxybenzene and a meta-tyrosine derivative. The products, [¹⁸F]1-fluoro-3,5-dimethoxybenzene and an ¹⁸F-labeled meta-tyrosine derivative, were obtained in 37 ± 5% isolated radiochemical yield and >99% radiochemical purity and 25% isolated radiochemical yield and 99% radiochemical purity, and 0.52 Ci/μmol (19.24 GBq/μmol) molar activity (A_m), respectively.

An updated synthesis of N1 '-([11 C]methyl)naltrindole for positron emission tomography imaging of the delta opioid receptor

A new method for the synthesis of the highly selective delta opioid receptor (DOR) antagonist radiotracer N₁ '-([¹¹ C]methyl)naltrindole ([¹¹ C]MeNTI) is described. The original synthesis required hydrogenation of a benzyl protecting group after ¹¹ C-labeling, which is challenging in modern radiochemistry laboratories that tend to be heavily automated and operate according to current good manufacturing practice. To address this challenge, we describe development of a novel MeNTI precursor bearing a methoxymethyl acetal (MOM) protecting group, which is easily removed with HCl, and employ it in an updated synthesis of [¹¹ C]MeNTI. The new synthesis is fully automated and validated for clinical use. The total synthesis time is 45 min and provides [¹¹ C]MeNTI in good activity yield (49 ± 8 mCi), molar activity (3,926 ± 326 Ci/mmol) and radiochemical purity (97% ± 2%).

On the consensus nomenclature rules for radiopharmaceutical chemistry - Reconsideration of radiochemical conversion

Radiochemical conversion is an important term to be included in the "Consensus nomenclature rules for radiopharmaceutical chemistry". Radiochemical conversion should be used to define reaction efficiency by measuring the transformation of components in a crude reaction mixture at a given time, whereas radiochemical yield is better suited to define the efficiency of an entire reaction process including, for example, separation, isolation, filtration, and formulation.

Fully Automated Radiosynthesis of [11C]Guanidines for Cardiac PET Imaging

Radiolabeled guanidines such as meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) find utility in nuclear medicine as both diagnostic imaging agents and radiotherapeutics and, over the years, numerous methods for incorporating radionuclides into guanidines have been developed. In connection with a project developing new positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers for cardiac sympathetic nerve density, we had cause to prepare [¹¹C]3F-PHPOG. However, it quickly became apparent that radiolabeling of guanidine scaffolds with carbon-11 has remained challenging, and historical methods lack compatibility with modern automated radiochemistry synthesis platforms and current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP) requirements. To address this challenge, we report a new automated method for radiolabeling guanidines with carbon-11. The method was used to prepare a series of [¹¹C]guanidines in good radiochemical yield (8-76% by radio-HPLC) and was found to have broad substrate scope and tolerance of unprotected OH and NH functional groups. The method was used to synthesize [¹¹C]3F-PHPOG for preclinical imaging, and suitability of the radiotracer for preclinical use was demonstrated through preliminary cardiac PET in New Zealand white rabbits which revealed good cardiac uptake and expected retention in the heart.

Improved Synthesis of [11C]COU and [11C]PHXY, Evaluation of Neurotoxicity, and Imaging of MAOs in Rodent Heart

The radiotracers [¹¹C]COU and [¹¹C]PHXY are potential PET imaging agents for in vivo studies of monoamine oxidases (MAOs), as previously shown in rodent and primate brain. One-pot, automated methods for the radiosynthesis of [¹¹C]PHXY and [¹¹C]COU were developed to provide reliable and improved radiochemical yields. Although derived from the structure of the neurotoxin MPTP, COU did not exhibit in vivo neurotoxicity to dopaminergic nerve terminals in the mouse brain as assayed by losses of VMAT2 radioligand binding. PET imaging studies in rats demonstrated that both [¹¹C]COU and [¹¹C]PHXY exhibit retention in cardiac tissues that can be blocked by pretreatment with the MAO inhibitors deprenyl (MAO-B) and pargyline (MAO-A and -B). In addition to prior neuroimaging applications, [¹¹C]COU and [¹¹C]PHXY are thus also of interest for studies of MAO enzymatic activity and imaging of sympathetic nerve density in heart.

Use of 55 PET radiotracers under approval of a Radioactive Drug Research Committee (RDRC)

BACKGROUND

In the US, EU and elsewhere, basic clinical research studies with positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers that are generally recognized as safe and effective (GRASE) can often be conducted under institutional approval. For example, in the United States, such research is conducted under the oversight of a Radioactive Drug Research Committee (RDRC) as long as certain requirements are met. Firstly, the research must be for basic science and cannot be intended for immediate therapeutic or diagnostic purposes, or to determine the safety and effectiveness of the PET radiotracer. Secondly, the PET radiotracer must be generally recognized as safe and effective. Specifically, the mass dose to be administered must not cause any clinically detectable pharmacological effect in humans, and the radiation dose to be administered must be the smallest dose practical to perform the study and not exceed regulatory dose limits within a 1-year period. In our experience, the main barrier to using a PET radiotracer under RDRC approval is accessing the required information about mass and radioactive dosing.

RESULTS

The University of Michigan (UM) has a long history of using PET radiotracers in clinical research studies. Herein we provide dosing information for 55 radiotracers that will enable other PET Centers to use them under the approval of their own RDRC committees.

CONCLUSIONS

The data provided herein will streamline future RDRC approval, and facilitate further basic science investigation of 55 PET radiotracers that target functionally relevant biomarkers in high impact disease states.

A spot test for determination of residual TBA levels in 18F-radiotracers for human use using Dragendorff reagent

When utilizing [¹⁸F]tetrabutylammonium fluoride ([¹⁸F]TBAF) in the synthesis of ¹⁸F-labeled radiotracers for clinical positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, it is necessary to confirm that residual TBA levels in formulated doses do not exceed established specifications (≤2.6 mg per patient dose). Historically this has been accomplished using HPLC, but this is time consuming for short-lived PET radiotracers and limited by the need for expensive equipment. This motivated us to introduce a TLC spot test for determining residual TBA, and we have developed a new method which employs the Dragendorff reagent. Herein we report details of the TLC method and use it to quantify residual TBA in different formulations of 6-[¹⁸F]fluoro-DOPA.

Strategies for PET imaging of the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE)

The implication of the receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) in numerous diseases and neurodegenerative disorders makes it interesting both as a therapeutic target and as an inflammatory biomarker. In the context of investigating RAGE as a biomarker, there is interest in developing radiotracers that will enable quantification of RAGE using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. We have synthesized potential small molecule radiotracers for both the intracellular ([18F]InRAGER) and extracellular ([18F]RAGER) domains of RAGE. Herein we report preclinical evaluation of both using in vitro (lead panel screens) and in vivo (rodent and nonhuman primate PET imaging) methods. Both radiotracers have high affinity for RAGE and show good brain uptake, but suffer from off-target binding. The source of the off-target PET signal is not attributable to binding to melatonin receptors, but remains unexplained. We have also investigated use of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated mice as a possible animal model with upregulated RAGE for evaluation of new imaging agents. Immunoreactivity of the mouse brain sections revealed increases in RAGE in the male cohorts, but no difference in the female groups. However, it proves challenging to quantify the changes in RAGE due to off-target binding of the radiotracers. Nevertheless, they are appropriate lead scaffolds for future development of 2nd generation RAGE PET radiotracers because of their high affinity for the receptor and good CNS penetration.

GW190521: A Binary Black Hole Merger with a Total Mass of 150 M_{⊙}

On May 21, 2019 at 03:02:29 UTC Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo observed a short duration gravitational-wave signal, GW190521, with a three-detector network signal-to-noise ratio of 14.7, and an estimated false-alarm rate of 1 in 4900 yr using a search sensitive to generic transients. If GW190521 is from a quasicircular binary inspiral, then the detected signal is consistent with the merger of two black holes with masses of 85_{-14}^{+21}  M_{⊙} and 66_{-18}^{+17}  M_{⊙} (90% credible intervals). We infer that the primary black hole mass lies within the gap produced by (pulsational) pair-instability supernova processes, with only a 0.32% probability of being below 65  M_{⊙}. We calculate the mass of the remnant to be 142_{-16}^{+28}  M_{⊙}, which can be considered an intermediate mass black hole (IMBH). The luminosity distance of the source is 5.3_{-2.6}^{+2.4}  Gpc, corresponding to a redshift of 0.82_{-0.34}^{+0.28}. The inferred rate of mergers similar to GW190521 is 0.13_{-0.11}^{+0.30}  Gpc^{-3} yr^{-1}.

Classics in Neuroimaging: Development of Positron Emission Tomography Tracers for Imaging the GABAergic Pathway

Advances in drug discovery and diverse radiochemical methodologies have led to the discovery of novel positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers used to image the GABAergic system, shaping our fundamental understanding of a variety of brain health illnesses, including epilepsy, stroke, cerebral palsy, schizophrenia, autism, Alzheimer's disease, and addictions. In this Viewpoint, we review the state-of-the art of PET imaging with radiotracers that target the GABA_A-benzodiazepine receptor complex, challenges and opportunities for imaging GABA_B receptors and GABA transporters, and highlight an ongoing need to develop more sensitive radiotracers for imaging GABA release in the central nervous system.

Synthesis and Evaluation of 11C- and 18F-Labeled SOAT1 Inhibitors as Macrophage Foam Cell Imaging Agents

PD-132301, an inhibitor of sterol O-acyltransferase 1 (SOAT1; also known as acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase-1, ACAT1), is under clinical investigation for numerous adrenal disorders. Radiolabeled SOAT1 inhibitors could support drug discovery and help diagnose SOAT1-related disorders, such as atherosclerosis. We synthesized two radiolabeled SOAT1 inhibitors, [11C]PD-132301 and fluorine analogue [18F]1. Rat biodistribution studies were conducted with both agents and, as the most selective tracer, [11C]PD-132301 was advanced to preclinical positron emission tomography studies in (atherosclerotic) ApoE-/- mice. The uptake of [11C]PD-132301 in SOAT1-rich tissue warrants further investigation into the compound as an atherosclerosis and adrenal imaging agent.

Copper-Mediated Late-stage Radiofluorination: Five Years of Impact on Pre-clinical and Clinical PET Imaging

Purpose

Copper-mediated radiofluorination (CMRF) is emerging as the method of choice for the formation of aromatic C-¹⁸F bonds. This minireview examines proof-of-concept, pre-clinical, and in-human imaging studies of new and established imaging agents containing aromatic C-¹⁸F bonds synthesized with CMRF. An exhaustive discussion of CMRF methods is not provided, although key developments that have enabled or improved upon the syntheses of fluorine-18 imaging agents are discussed.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search from April 2014 onwards of the Web of Science and PubMed library databases was performed to find reports that utilize CMRF for the synthesis of fluorine-18 radiopharmaceuticals, and these represent the primary body of research discussed in this minireview. Select conference proceedings, previous reports describing alternative methods for the synthesis of imaging agents, and preceding fluorine-19 methodologies have also been included for discussion.

Conclusions

CMRF has significantly expanded the chemical space that is accessible to fluorine-18 radiolabeling with production methods that can meet the regulatory requirements for use in Nuclear Medicine. Furthermore, it has enabled novel and improved syntheses of radiopharmaceuticals and facilitated subsequent PET imaging studies. The rapid adoption of CMRF will undoubtedly continue to simplify the production of imaging agents and inspire the development of new radiofluorination methodologies.

Synthesis of high-molar-activity [18F]6-fluoro-L-DOPA suitable for human use via Cu-mediated fluorination of a BPin precursor

[18F]6-fluoro-L-DOPA ([18F]FDOPA) is a diagnostic radiopharmaceutical for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging that is used to image Parkinson's disease, brain tumors, and focal hyperinsulinism of infancy. Despite these important applications, [18F]FDOPA PET remains underutilized because of synthetic challenges associated with accessing the radiotracer for clinical use; these stem from the need to radiofluorinate a highly electron-rich catechol ring in the presence of an amino acid. To address this longstanding challenge in the PET radiochemistry community, we have developed a one-pot, two-step synthesis of high-molar-activity [18F]FDOPA by Cu-mediated fluorination of a pinacol boronate (BPin) precursor. The method is fully automated, has been validated to work well at two separate sites (an academic facility with a cyclotron on site and an industry lab purchasing [18F]fluoride from an outside vendor), and provides [18F]FDOPA in reasonable radiochemical yield (2.44 ± 0.70 GBq, 66 ± 19 mCi, 5 ± 1%), excellent radiochemical purity (>98%) and high molar activity (76 ± 30 TBq/mmol, 2,050 ± 804 Ci/mmol), n = 26. Herein we report a detailed protocol for the synthesis of [18F]FDOPA that has been successfully implemented at two sites and validated for production of the radiotracer for human use.

NHC-Copper Mediated Ligand-Directed Radiofluorination of Aryl Halides

[¹⁸F]-labeled aryl fluorides are widely used as radiotracers for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Aryl halides (ArX) are particularly attractive precursors to these radiotracers, as they are readily available, inexpensive, and stable. However, to date, the direct preparation of [¹⁸F]-aryl fluorides from aryl halides remains limited to S_NAr reactions between highly activated ArX substrates and K¹⁸F. This report describes an aryl halide radiofluorination reaction in which the C(sp²)-¹⁸F bond is formed via a copper-mediated pathway. Copper N-heterocyclic carbene complexes serve as mediators for this transformation, using aryl halide substrates with directing groups at the ortho position. This reaction is applied to the radiofluorination of electronically diverse aryl halide derivatives, including the bioactive molecules vismodegib and PH089.

Evaluation of [18F]-N-Methyl lansoprazole as a Tau PET Imaging Agent in First-in-Human Studies

Development of positron emission tomography (PET) imaging agents capable of quantifying tau aggregates in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) is of enormous importance in the field of dementia research. The aim of the present study was to conduct first-in-man imaging studies with the potential novel tau imaging agent [¹⁸F]N-methyl lansoprazole ([¹⁸F]NML). Herein we report validation of the synthesis of [¹⁸F]NML for clinical use by labeling the trifluoromethyl group via radiofluorination of the corresponding gem-difluoro enol ether precursor. This is the first use of this method for clinical production of PET radiotracers and confirmed that it can be readily implemented at multiple production facilities to provide [¹⁸F]NML in good noncorrected radiochemical yield (3.4 ± 1.5 GBq, 4.6% ± 2.6%) and molar activity (120.1 ± 186.3 GBq/μmol), excellent radiochemical purity (>97%), and suitable for human use (n = 15). With [¹⁸F]NML in hand, we conducted rodent biodistribution, estimates of human dosimetry, and preliminary evaluation of [¹⁸F]NML in human subjects at two imaging sites. Healthy controls (n = 4) and mildly cognitively impaired (MCI) AD patients (n = 6) received [¹⁸F]NML (tau), [¹⁸F]AV1451 (tau), and [¹⁸F]florbetaben or [¹⁸F]florbetapir (amyloid) PET scans. A single progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) patient also received [¹⁸F]NML and [¹⁸F]AV1451 PET scans. [¹⁸F]NML showed good brain uptake, reasonable pharmacokinetics, and appropriate imaging characteristics in healthy controls. The mean ± SD of the administered mass of [¹⁸F/¹⁹F]NML was 2.01 ± 2.17 μg (range, 0.16-8.27 μg) and the mean administered activity was 350 ± 62 MBq (range, 199-403 MBq). There were no adverse or clinically detectable pharmacologic effects in any of the 11 subjects, and no significant changes in vital signs were observed. However, despite high affinity for tau in vitro, brain retention in MCI/AD and PSP patients was low, and there was no evidence of specific signals in vivo that corresponded to tau. Although it is still unclear why clinical translation of the radiotracer was unsuccessful, we nevertheless conclude that further development of [¹⁸F]NML as a tau PET imaging agent is not warranted at this time.

Quantum-Enhanced Advanced LIGO Detectors in the Era of Gravitational-Wave Astronomy

The Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) has been directly detecting gravitational waves from compact binary mergers since 2015. We report on the first use of squeezed vacuum states in the direct measurement of gravitational waves with the Advanced LIGO H1 and L1 detectors. This achievement is the culmination of decades of research to implement squeezed states in gravitational-wave detectors. During the ongoing O3 observation run, squeezed states are improving the sensitivity of the LIGO interferometers to signals above 50 Hz by up to 3 dB, thereby increasing the expected detection rate by 40% (H1) and 50% (L1).

Search for Subsolar Mass Ultracompact Binaries in Advanced LIGO's Second Observing Run

We present a search for subsolar mass ultracompact objects in data obtained during Advanced LIGO's second observing run. In contrast to a previous search of Advanced LIGO data from the first observing run, this search includes the effects of component spin on the gravitational waveform. We identify no viable gravitational-wave candidates consistent with subsolar mass ultracompact binaries with at least one component between 0.2  M_{⊙}-1.0  M_{⊙}. We use the null result to constrain the binary merger rate of (0.2  M_{⊙}, 0.2  M_{⊙}) binaries to be less than 3.7×10^{5}  Gpc^{-3} yr^{-1} and the binary merger rate of (1.0  M_{⊙}, 1.0  M_{⊙}) binaries to be less than 5.2×10^{3}  Gpc^{-3} yr^{-1}. Subsolar mass ultracompact objects are not expected to form via known stellar evolution channels, though it has been suggested that primordial density fluctuations or particle dark matter with cooling mechanisms and/or nuclear interactions could form black holes with subsolar masses. Assuming a particular primordial black hole (PBH) formation model, we constrain a population of merging 0.2  M_{⊙} black holes to account for less than 16% of the dark matter density and a population of merging 1.0  M_{⊙} black holes to account for less than 2% of the dark matter density. We discuss how constraints on the merger rate and dark matter fraction may be extended to arbitrary black hole population models that predict subsolar mass binaries.

One-pot synthesis of high molar activity 6-[18F]fluoro-l-DOPA by Cu-mediated fluorination of a BPin precursor

A one-pot two-step synthesis of 6-[18F]fluoro-l-DOPA ([18F]FDOPA) has been developed involving Cu-mediated radiofluorination of a pinacol boronate ester precursor. The method is fully automated, provides [18F]FDOPA in good activity yield (104 ± 16 mCi, 6 ± 1%), excellent radiochemical purity (>99%) and high molar activity (3799 ± 2087 Ci mmol-1), n = 3, and has been validated to produce the radiotracer for human use.

Development and implementation of ISAR, a new synthesis platform for radiopharmaceutical production

BACKGROUND

PET radiopharmaceutical development and the implementation of a production method on a synthesis module is a complex and time-intensive task since new synthesis methods must be adapted to the confines of the synthesis platform in use. Commonly utilized single fluid bus architectures put multiple constraints on synthesis planning and execution, while conventional microfluidic solutions are limited by compatibility at the macro-to-micro interface. In this work we introduce the ISAR synthesis platform and custom-tailored fluid paths leveraging up to 70 individually addressable valves on a chip-based consumable. The ISAR synthesis platform replaces traditional stopcock valve manifolds with a fluidic chip that integrates all fluid paths (tubing) and valves into one consumable and enables channel routing without the single fluid bus constraint. ISAR can scale between the macro- (10 mL), meso- (0.5 mL) and micro- (≤0.05 mL) domain seamlessly, addressing the macro-to-micro interface challenge and enabling custom tailored fluid circuits for a given application. In this paper we demonstrate proof-of-concept by validating a single chip design to address the challenge of synthesizing multiple batches of [13N]NH3 for clinical use throughout the workday.

RESULTS

ISAR was installed at an academic PET Center and used to manufacture [13N]NH3 in > 96% radiochemical yield. Up to 9 batches were manufactured with a single consumable chip having parallel paths without the need to open the hot-cell. Quality control testing confirmed the ISAR-based [13N]NH3 met existing clinical release specifications, and utility was demonstrated by imaging a rodent with [13N]NH3 produced on ISAR.

CONCLUSIONS

ISAR represents a new paradigm in radiopharmaceutical production. Through a new system architecture, ISAR integrates the principles of microfluidics with the standard volumes and consumables established in PET Centers all over the world. Proof-of-concept has been demonstrated through validation of a chip design for the synthesis of [13N]NH3 suitable for clinical use.

Identification of AV-1451 as a Weak, Nonselective Inhibitor of Monoamine Oxidase

[¹⁸F]AV-1451 is one of the most widely used radiotracers for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of tau protein aggregates in neurodegenerative disorders. While the radiotracer binds with high affinity to tau neurofibrillary tangles, extensive clinical studies have simultaneously revealed off-target tracer accumulation in areas of low tau burden such as the basal ganglia and choroid plexus. Though there are a number of possible reasons for this accumulation, it is often attributed to off-target binding to monoamine oxidase (MAO). In this paper, we investigate the association between [¹⁸F]AV-1451 and MAO through (i) enzyme inhibition assays, (ii) autoradiography with postmortem tissue samples, and (iii) nonhuman primate PET imaging. We confirm that [¹⁸F]AV-1451 is a weak inhibitor of MAO-A and -B and that MAO inhibitors can alter binding of [¹⁸F]AV-1451 in autoradiography and in vivo PET imaging.

Synthesis of [18F]-γ-fluoro-α,β,-unsaturated esters and ketones via vinylogous 18F-fluorination of α-diazoacetates with [18F]AgF

This communication reports a method for the vinylogous radiofluorination of α-diazoacetates to generate γ-[¹⁸F]fluoro-α,β-unsaturated esters and ketones in moderate to good radiochemical yields. The method uses no-carrier-added [¹⁸F]AgF and is compatible with aromatic and non-aromatic substrates and a number of different functional groups. The labeling method is showcased in the synthesis of a fluorinated 5-cholesten-3-one derivative as well as a difluorinated product pertinent to drug discovery.

Tests of General Relativity with GW170817

The recent discovery by Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo of a gravitational wave signal from a binary neutron star inspiral has enabled tests of general relativity (GR) with this new type of source. This source, for the first time, permits tests of strong-field dynamics of compact binaries in the presence of matter. In this Letter, we place constraints on the dipole radiation and possible deviations from GR in the post-Newtonian coefficients that govern the inspiral regime. Bounds on modified dispersion of gravitational waves are obtained; in combination with information from the observed electromagnetic counterpart we can also constrain effects due to large extra dimensions. Finally, the polarization content of the gravitational wave signal is studied. The results of all tests performed here show good agreement with GR.

Ring opening of epoxides with [18F]FeF species to produce [18F]fluorohydrin PET imaging agents

A simple technique for the preparation of [18F]HF has been developed and applied to the generation of an [18F]FeF species for opening sterically hindered epoxides. This method has been successfully employed to prepare four drug-like molecules, including 5-[18F]fluoro-6-hydroxy-cholesterol, a potential adrenal/endocrine PET imaging agent. This easily automated one-pot procedure produces sterically hindered fluorohydrin PET imaging agents in good yields and high molar activities.

Classics in Neuroimaging: Development of PET Tracers for Imaging Monoamine Oxidases

In this Viewpoint, we highlight the history of positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer development to quantify changes in monoamine oxidase (MAO)-A and -B enzyme expression or activity. MAO-A and MAO-B are critical for understanding monoaminergic pathways in psychiatric addiction disorders, and more recently in neurodegenerative disorders with MAO-B expression in astrogliosis. Unique radiochemical innovations have been shown for neuroimaging of MAOs including the clinical translation of irreversible propargylamine-based suicide inhibitors, application of deuterium-substitution to slow down metabolism, development of trapped metabolite imaging agents, and unique ¹¹C-carbonylation chemistry toward novel high-affinity reversibly binding inhibitors.

Synthesis of 6-(Fluoromethyl)-19-norcholest-5(10)-en-3-ol, a Fluorinated Analogue of NP-59, using the Mild Fluorinating Reagent, TBAF(Pinacol)2

For 45 years, efforts to prepare a fluorinated analogue of the scintiscanning/SPECT agent 6-(iodomethyl)-19-norcholest-5(10)-en-3-ol (NP-59) for development of a PET imaging agent have failed due to undesired elimination reactions and unexpected rearrangements observed­ while utilizing a wide variety of fluorinating conditions (e.g., cesium­ fluoride, silver fluoride, (2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)diethylamine (FAR), diethylaminosulfur trifluoride (DAST), and hexa­fluoro­propene diethylamine FPA). Herein, we report the full synthesis of NP-59, followed by the four-step synthesis of 6-(fluoromethyl)-19-norcholest-5(10)-en-3-ol (FNP-59) using a recently developed mild fluorinating reagent, less prone to producing elimination reactions in the preparation of primary fluorides, TBAF(pinacol)2, with an overall yield of 16% (four steps). Also included is an evaluation of the TBAF(pinacol)2 reagent on eight test substrates to investigate its scope.

C-H 18F-fluorination of 8-methylquinolines with Ag[18F]F

This report describes a Pd-mediated C-H radiofluorination of 8-methylquinoline derivatives with no-carrier-added Ag[18F]F. To achieve this transformation, a new method was developed for the generation of Ag[18F]F using a sep-pak cartridge. The C-H radiofluorination was then optimized and applied to a series of substituted 8-methylquinoline derivatives. Finally, this method was fully automated using a radiochemistry synthesis module.

Constraining the p-Mode-g-Mode Tidal Instability with GW170817

We analyze the impact of a proposed tidal instability coupling p modes and g modes within neutron stars on GW170817. This nonresonant instability transfers energy from the orbit of the binary to internal modes of the stars, accelerating the gravitational-wave driven inspiral. We model the impact of this instability on the phasing of the gravitational wave signal using three parameters per star: an overall amplitude, a saturation frequency, and a spectral index. Incorporating these additional parameters, we compute the Bayes factor (lnB_{!pg}^{pg}) comparing our p-g model to a standard one. We find that the observed signal is consistent with waveform models that neglect p-g effects, with lnB_{!pg}^{pg}=0.03_{-0.58}^{+0.70} (maximum a posteriori and 90% credible region). By injecting simulated signals that do not include p-g effects and recovering them with the p-g model, we show that there is a ≃50% probability of obtaining similar lnB_{!pg}^{pg} even when p-g effects are absent. We find that the p-g amplitude for 1.4  M_{⊙} neutron stars is constrained to less than a few tenths of the theoretical maximum, with maxima a posteriori near one-tenth this maximum and p-g saturation frequency ∼70  Hz. This suggests that there are less than a few hundred excited modes, assuming they all saturate by wave breaking. For comparison, theoretical upper bounds suggest ≲10^{3} modes saturate by wave breaking. Thus, the measured constraints only rule out extreme values of the p-g parameters. They also imply that the instability dissipates ≲10^{51}  erg over the entire inspiral, i.e., less than a few percent of the energy radiated as gravitational waves.

Copper-Mediated Aminoquinoline-Directed Radiofluorination of Aromatic C-H Bonds with K18 F

A Cu-mediated ortho-C-H radiofluorination of aromatic carboxylic acids that are protected as 8-aminoquinoline benzamides is described. The method uses K¹⁸ F and is compatible with a wide range of functional groups. The reaction is showcased in the high specific activity automated synthesis of the RARβ2 agonist [¹⁸ F]AC261066.

Deuterium Kinetic Isotope Effect Studies of a Potential in Vivo Metabolic Trapping Agent for Monoamine Oxidase B

Visualizing the in vivo activity of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) is a valuable tool in the ongoing investigation of astrogliosis in neurodegeneration. Existing strategies for imaging changes in MAO enzyme expression or activity have utilized the irreversible suicide inhibitors or high-affinity reversibly binding inhibitors as positron emission tomography (PET) ligands. As an alternative approach, we developed 4-methyl-7-[(1-[¹¹C]methyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridin-4-yl)oxy]-2 H-chromen-2-one ([¹¹C]Cou) as a metabolic trapping agent for MAO-B. Trapping of [¹¹C]Cou in rhesus monkey brain demonstrated MAO-B selectivity. In this work, we have attempted to improve on the in vivo pharmacokinetics of [¹¹C]Cou by using the deuterium kinetic isotope effect (KIE) to slow the MAO-B-mediated oxidation step and thus reduce the rate of trapping in brain tissues. However, in vitro assays of enzyme kinetics and in vivo PET imaging of pharmacokinetics in primate brain showed no effects of deuterium substitution on the tetrahydropyridine ring of [¹¹C]Cou. The results are possibly due to masking of the KIE by a second step in the overall metabolism of the new imaging agent.