Neuroticism/negative emotionality is associated with increased reactivity to uncertain threat in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, not the amygdala

Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality (N/NE)-the tendency to experience anxiety, fear, and other negative emotions-is a fundamental dimension of temperament with profound consequences for health, wealth, and wellbeing. Elevated N/NE is associated with a panoply of adverse outcomes, from reduced socioeconomic attainment to psychiatric illness. Animal research suggests that N/NE reflects heightened reactivity to uncertain threat in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) and central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce), but the relevance of these discoveries to humans has remained unclear. Here we used a novel combination of psychometric, psychophysiological, and neuroimaging approaches to rigorously test this hypothesis in an ethnoracially diverse, sex-balanced sample of 220 emerging adults selectively recruited to encompass a broad spectrum of N/NE. Cross-validated robust-regression analyses demonstrated that N/NE is preferentially associated with heightened BST activation during the uncertain anticipation of a genuinely distressing threat (aversive multimodal stimulation), whereas N/NE was unrelated to BST activation during certain-threat anticipation, Ce activation during either type of threat anticipation, or BST/Ce reactivity to threat-related faces. It is often assumed that different threat paradigms are interchangeable assays of individual differences in brain function, yet this has rarely been tested. Our results revealed negligible associations between BST/Ce reactivity to the anticipation of threat and the presentation of threat-related faces, indicating that the two tasks are non-fungible. These observations provide a framework for conceptualizing emotional traits and disorders; for guiding the design and interpretation of biobank and other neuroimaging studies of psychiatric risk, disease, and treatment; and for informing mechanistic research.

Understanding the heterogeneity of anxiety using a translational neuroscience approach

Anxiety disorders affect millions of people worldwide and present a challenge in neuroscience research because of their substantial heterogeneity in clinical presentation. While a great deal of progress has been made in understanding the neurobiology of fear and anxiety, these insights have not led to effective treatments. Understanding the relationship between phenotypic heterogeneity and the underlying biology is a critical first step in solving this problem. We show translation, reverse translation, and computational modeling can contribute to a refined, cross-species understanding of fear and anxiety as well as anxiety disorders. More specifically, we outline how animal models can be leveraged to develop testable hypotheses in humans by using targeted, cross-species approaches and ethologically informed behavioral paradigms. We discuss reverse translational approaches that can guide and prioritize animal research in nontraditional research species. Finally, we advocate for the use of computational models to harmonize cross-species and cross-methodology research into anxiety. Together, this translational neuroscience approach will help to bridge the widening gap between how we currently conceptualize and diagnose anxiety disorders, as well as aid in the discovery of better treatments for these conditions.

Early life adversity in primates: Behavioral, endocrine, and neural effects

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that early life adversity is associated with maladaptive behaviors and is commonly an antecedent of stress-related psychopathology. This is particularly relevant to rearing in primate species as infant primates depend on prolonged, nurturant rearing by caregivers for normal development. To further understand the consequences of early life rearing adversity, and the relation among alterations in behavior, physiology and brain function, we assessed young monkeys that had experienced maternal separation followed by peer rearing with behavioral, endocrine and multimodal neuroimaging measures.

METHODS

50 young rhesus monkeys were studied, half of which were rejected by their mothers and peer reared, and the other half were reared by their mothers. Assessments were performed at approximately 1.8 years of age and included: threat related behavioral and cortisol responses, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) measurements of oxytocin and corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), and multimodal neuroimaging measures (anatomical scans, resting functional connectivity, diffusion tensor imaging, and threat-related regional glucose metabolism).

RESULTS

The results demonstrated alterations across behavioral, endocrine, and neuroimaging measures in young monkeys that were reared without their mothers. At a behavioral level in response to a potential threat, peer reared animals engaged in significantly less freezing behavior (p = 0.022) along with increased self-directed behaviors (p < 0.012). Levels of oxytocin in the CSF, but not plasma, were significantly reduced in the peer reared animals (p = 0.019). No differences in plasma cortisol or CSF CRH were observed. Diffusion tensor imaging revealed significantly decreased white matter density across the brain. Exploratory correlational and permutation analyses suggest that the impact of peer rearing on behavior, endocrine and brain structural alterations are mediated by separate parallel mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results demonstrate in NHPs the importance of maternal rearing on the development of brain, behavior and hormonal systems that are linked to social functioning and adaptive responses. The findings suggest that the effects of maternal deprivation are mediated via multiple independent pathways which may account for the heterogeneity in behavioral and biological alterations observed in individuals that have experienced this early life adversity.

Rhesus infant nervous temperament predicts peri-adolescent central amygdala metabolism & behavioral inhibition measured by a machine-learning approach

Anxiety disorders affect millions of people worldwide and impair health, happiness, and productivity on a massive scale. Developmental research points to a connection between early-life behavioral inhibition and the eventual development of these disorders. Our group has previously shown that measures of behavioral inhibition in young rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) predict anxiety-like behavior later in life. In recent years, clinical and basic researchers have implicated the central extended amygdala (EAc)-a neuroanatomical concept that includes the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)-as a key neural substrate for the expression of anxious and inhibited behavior. An improved understanding of how early-life behavioral inhibition relates to an increased lifetime risk of anxiety disorders-and how this relationship is mediated by alterations in the EAc-could lead to improved treatments and preventive strategies. In this study, we explored the relationships between infant behavioral inhibition and peri-adolescent defensive behavior and brain metabolism in 18 female rhesus monkeys. We coupled a mildly threatening behavioral assay with concurrent multimodal neuroimaging, and related those findings to various measures of infant temperament. To score the behavioral assay, we developed and validated UC-Freeze, a semi-automated machine-learning (ML) tool that uses unsupervised clustering to quantify freezing. Consistent with previous work, we found that heightened Ce metabolism predicted elevated defensive behavior (i.e., more freezing) in the presence of an unfamiliar human intruder. Although we found no link between infant-inhibited temperament and peri-adolescent EAc metabolism or defensive behavior, we did identify infant nervous temperament as a significant predictor of peri-adolescent defensive behavior. Our findings suggest a connection between infant nervous temperament and the eventual development of anxiety and depressive disorders. Moreover, our approach highlights the potential for ML tools to augment existing behavioral neuroscience methods.

Gene expression in the primate orbitofrontal cortex related to anxious temperament

Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders, causing significant suffering and disability. Relative to other psychiatric disorders, anxiety disorders tend to emerge early in life, supporting the importance of developmental mechanisms in their emergence and maintenance. Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a temperament that emerges early in life and, when stable and extreme, is linked to an increased risk for the later development of anxiety disorders and other stress-related psychopathology. Understanding the neural systems and molecular mechanisms underlying this dispositional risk could provide insight into treatment targets for anxiety disorders. Nonhuman primates (NHPs) have an anxiety-related temperament, called anxious temperament (AT), that is remarkably similar to BI in humans, facilitating the design of highly translational models for studying the early risk for stress-related psychopathology. Because of the recent evolutionary divergence between humans and NHPs, many of the anxiety-related brain regions that contribute to psychopathology are highly similar in terms of their structure and function, particularly with respect to the prefrontal cortex. The orbitofrontal cortex plays a critical role in the flexible encoding and regulation of threat responses, in part through connections with subcortical structures like the amygdala. Here, we explore individual differences in the transcriptional profile of cells within the region, using laser capture microdissection and single nuclear sequencing, providing insight into the molecules underlying individual differences in AT-related function of the pOFC, with a particular focus on previously implicated cellular systems, including neurotrophins and glucocorticoid signaling.

Sexual differentiation of neural mechanisms of stress sensitivity during puberty

Anxiety disorders are a major public health concern and current treatments are inadequate for many individuals. Anxiety is more common in women than men and this difference arises during puberty. Sex differences in physiological stress responses may contribute to this variability. During puberty, gonadal hormones shape brain structure and function, but the extent to which these changes affect stress sensitivity is unknown. We examined how pubertal androgens shape behavioral and neural responses to social stress in California mice (Peromyscus californicus), a model species for studying sex differences in stress responses. In adults, social defeat reduces social approach and increases social vigilance in females but not males. We show this sex difference is absent in juveniles, and that prepubertal castration sensitizes adult males to social defeat. Adult gonadectomy does not alter behavioral responses to defeat, indicating that gonadal hormones act during puberty to program behavioral responses to stress in adulthood. Calcium imaging in the medioventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) showed that social threats increased neural activity and that prepubertal castration generalized these responses to less threatening social contexts. These results support recent hypotheses that the BNST responds to immediate threats. Prepubertal treatment with the nonaromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone acts in males and females to reduce the effects of defeat on social approach and vigilance in adults. These data indicate that activation of androgen receptors during puberty is critical for programming behavioral responses to stress in adulthood.

Adeno-associated viral vectors for functional intravenous gene transfer throughout the non-human primate brain

Crossing the blood-brain barrier in primates is a major obstacle for gene delivery to the brain. Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) promise robust, non-invasive gene delivery from the bloodstream to the brain. However, unlike in rodents, few neurotropic AAVs efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier in non-human primates. Here we report on AAV.CAP-Mac, an engineered variant identified by screening in adult marmosets and newborn macaques, which has improved delivery efficiency in the brains of multiple non-human primate species: marmoset, rhesus macaque and green monkey. CAP-Mac is neuron biased in infant Old World primates, exhibits broad tropism in adult rhesus macaques and is vasculature biased in adult marmosets. We demonstrate applications of a single, intravenous dose of CAP-Mac to deliver functional GCaMP for ex vivo calcium imaging across multiple brain areas, or a cocktail of fluorescent reporters for Brainbow-like labelling throughout the macaque brain, circumventing the need for germline manipulations in Old World primates. As such, CAP-Mac is shown to have potential for non-invasive systemic gene transfer in the brains of non-human primates.

Acute nicotine abstinence amplifies subjective withdrawal symptoms and threat-evoked fear and anxiety, but not extended amygdala reactivity

Tobacco smoking imposes a staggering burden on public health, underscoring the urgency of developing a deeper understanding of the processes that maintain addiction. Clinical and experience-sampling data highlight the importance of anxious withdrawal symptoms, but the underlying neurobiology has remained elusive. Mechanistic work in animals implicates the central extended amygdala (EAc)-including the central nucleus of the amygdala and the neighboring bed nucleus of the stria terminalis-but the translational relevance of these discoveries remains unexplored. Here we leveraged a randomized trial design, well-established threat-anticipation paradigm, and multidimensional battery of assessments to understand the consequences of 24-hour nicotine abstinence. The threat-anticipation paradigm had the expected consequences, amplifying subjective distress and arousal, and recruiting the canonical threat-anticipation network. Abstinence increased smoking urges and withdrawal symptoms, and potentiated threat-evoked distress, but had negligible consequences for EAc threat reactivity, raising questions about the translational relevance of prominent animal and human models of addiction. These observations provide a framework for conceptualizing nicotine abstinence and withdrawal, with implications for basic, translational, and clinical science.

Functional gene delivery to and across brain vasculature of systemic AAVs with endothelial-specific tropism in rodents and broad tropism in primates

Delivering genes to and across the brain vasculature efficiently and specifically across species remains a critical challenge for addressing neurological diseases. We have evolved adeno-associated virus (AAV9) capsids into vectors that transduce brain endothelial cells specifically and efficiently following systemic administration in wild-type mice with diverse genetic backgrounds, and in rats. These AAVs also exhibit superior transduction of the CNS across non-human primates (marmosets and rhesus macaques), and in ex vivo human brain slices, although the endothelial tropism is not conserved across species. The capsid modifications translate from AAV9 to other serotypes such as AAV1 and AAV-DJ, enabling serotype switching for sequential AAV administration in mice. We demonstrate that the endothelial-specific mouse capsids can be used to genetically engineer the blood-brain barrier by transforming the mouse brain vasculature into a functional biofactory. We apply this approach to Hevin knockout mice, where AAV-X1-mediated ectopic expression of the synaptogenic protein Sparcl1/Hevin in brain endothelial cells rescued synaptic deficits.

The Nature and Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety: State of the Science and Opportunities for Accelerating Discovery

Fear and anxiety play a central role in mammalian life, and there is considerable interest in clarifying their nature, identifying their biological underpinnings, and determining their consequences for health and disease. Here we provide a roundtable discussion on the nature and biological bases of fear- and anxiety-related states, traits, and disorders. The discussants include scientists familiar with a wide variety of populations and a broad spectrum of techniques. The goal of the roundtable was to take stock of the state of the science and provide a roadmap to the next generation of fear and anxiety research. Much of the discussion centered on the key challenges facing the field, the most fruitful avenues for future research, and emerging opportunities for accelerating discovery, with implications for scientists, funders, and other stakeholders. Understanding fear and anxiety is a matter of practical importance. Anxiety disorders are a leading burden on public health and existing treatments are far from curative, underscoring the urgency of developing a deeper understanding of the factors governing threat-related emotions.

Advances in AAV technology for delivering genetically encoded cargo to the nonhuman primate nervous system

Modern neuroscience approaches including optogenetics, calcium imaging, and other genetic manipulations have facilitated our ability to dissect specific circuits in rodent models to study their role in neurological disease. These approaches regularly use viral vectors to deliver genetic cargo (e.g., opsins) to specific tissues and genetically-engineered rodents to achieve cell-type specificity. However, the translatability of these rodent models, cross-species validation of identified targets, and translational efficacy of potential therapeutics in larger animal models like nonhuman primates remains difficult due to the lack of efficient primate viral vectors. A refined understanding of the nonhuman primate nervous system promises to deliver insights that can guide the development of treatments for neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we outline recent advances in the development of adeno-associated viral vectors for optimized use in nonhuman primates. These tools promise to help open new avenues for study in translational neuroscience and further our understanding of the primate brain.

Intravenous functional gene transfer throughout the brain of non-human primates using AAV

Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) promise robust gene delivery to the brain through non-invasive, intravenous delivery. However, unlike in rodents, few neurotropic AAVs efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier in non-human primates (NHPs). Here we describe AAV.CAP-Mac, an engineered variant identified by screening in adult marmosets and newborn macaques with improved efficiency in the brain of multiple NHP species: marmoset, rhesus macaque, and green monkey. CAP-Mac is neuron-biased in infant Old World primates, exhibits broad tropism in adult rhesus macaques, and is vasculature-biased in adult marmosets. We demonstrate applications of a single, intravenous dose of CAP-Mac to deliver (1) functional GCaMP for ex vivo calcium imaging across multiple brain areas, and (2) a cocktail of fluorescent reporters for Brainbow-like labeling throughout the macaque brain, circumventing the need for germline manipulations in Old World primates. Given its capabilities for systemic gene transfer in NHPs, CAP-Mac promises to help unlock non-invasive access to the brain.

Functional gene delivery to and across brain vasculature of systemic AAVs with endothelial-specific tropism in rodents and broad tropism in primates

Delivering genes to and across the brain vasculature efficiently and specifically across species remains a critical challenge for addressing neurological diseases. We have evolved adeno-associated virus (AAV9) capsids into vectors that transduce brain endothelial cells specifically and efficiently following systemic administration in wild-type mice with diverse genetic backgrounds and rats. These AAVs also exhibit superior transduction of the CNS across non-human primates (marmosets and rhesus macaques), and ex vivo human brain slices although the endothelial tropism is not conserved across species. The capsid modifications translate from AAV9 to other serotypes such as AAV1 and AAV-DJ, enabling serotype switching for sequential AAV administration in mice. We demonstrate that the endothelial specific mouse capsids can be used to genetically engineer the blood-brain barrier by transforming the mouse brain vasculature into a functional biofactory. Vasculature-secreted Hevin (a synaptogenic protein) rescued synaptic deficits in a mouse model.

The central extended amygdala guides survival-relevant tradeoffs: Implications for understanding common psychiatric disorders

To thrive in challenging environments, individuals must pursue rewards while avoiding threats. Extensive studies in animals and humans have identified the central extended amygdala (EAc)-which includes the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST)-as a conserved substrate for defensive behavior. These studies suggest the EAc influences defensive responding and assembles fearful and anxious states. This has led to the proliferation of a view that the EAc is fundamentally a defensive substrate. Yet mechanistic work in animals has implicated the EAc in numerous appetitive and consummatory processes, yielding fresh insights into the microcircuitry of survival- and emotion-relevant response selection. Coupled with the EAc's centrality in a conserved network of brain regions that encode multisensory environmental and interoceptive information, these findings suggest a broader role for the EAc as an arbiter of survival- and emotion-relevant tradeoffs for action selection. Determining how the EAc optimizes these tradeoffs promises to improve our understanding of common psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, depression, alcohol- and substance-use disorders, and anhedonia.

Prefrontal influences on the function of the neural circuitry underlying anxious temperament in primates

Anxious temperament, characterized by heightened behavioral and physiological reactivity to potential threat, is an early childhood risk factor for the later development of stress-related psychopathology. Using a well-validated nonhuman primate model, we tested the hypothesis that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is critical in regulating the expression of primate anxiety-like behavior, as well as the function of subcortical components of the anxiety-related neural circuit. We performed aspiration lesions of a narrow 'strip' of the posterior orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) intended to disrupt both cortex and axons entering, exiting and coursing through the pOFC, particularly those of the uncinate fasciculus (UF), a white matter tract that courses adjacent to and through this region. The OFC is of particular interest as a potential regulatory region because of its extensive reciprocal connections with amygdala, other subcortical structures and other frontal lobe regions. We validated this lesion method by demonstrating marked lesion-induced decreases in the microstructural integrity of the UF, which contains most of the fibers that connect the ventral PFC with temporal lobe structures as well as with other frontal regions. While the lesions resulted in modest decreases in threat-related behavior, they substantially decreased metabolism in components of the circuit underlying threat processing. These findings provide evidence for the importance of structural connectivity between the PFC and key subcortical structures in regulating the functions of brain regions known to be involved in the adaptive and maladaptive expression of anxiety.

Anxiety-Related Frontocortical Activity Is Associated With Dampened Stressor Reactivity in the Real World

Negative affect is a fundamental dimension of human emotion. When extreme, it contributes to a variety of adverse outcomes, from physical and mental illness to divorce and premature death. Mechanistic work in animals and neuroimaging research in humans and monkeys have begun to reveal the broad contours of the neural circuits governing negative affect, but the relevance of these discoveries to everyday distress remains incompletely understood. Here, we used a combination of approaches-including neuroimaging assays of threat anticipation and emotional-face perception and more than 10,000 momentary assessments of emotional experience-to demonstrate that individuals who showed greater activation in a cingulo-opercular circuit during an anxiety-eliciting laboratory paradigm experienced lower levels of stressor-dependent distress in their daily lives (ns = 202-208 university students). Extended amygdala activation was not significantly related to momentary negative affect. These observations provide a framework for understanding the neurobiology of negative affect in the laboratory and in the real world.

Evidence in primates supporting the use of chemogenetics for the treatment of human refractory neuropsychiatric disorders

Non-human primate (NHP) models are essential for developing and translating new treatments that target neural circuit dysfunction underlying human psychopathology. As a proof-of-concept for treating neuropsychiatric disorders, we used a NHP model of pathological anxiety to investigate the feasibility of decreasing anxiety by chemogenetically (DREADDs [designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs]) reducing amygdala neuronal activity. Intraoperative MRI surgery was used to infect dorsal amygdala neurons with AAV5-hSyn-HA-hM4Di in young rhesus monkeys. In vivo microPET studies with [11C]-deschloroclozapine and postmortem autoradiography with [3H]-clozapine demonstrated selective hM4Di binding in the amygdala, and neuronal expression of hM4Di was confirmed with immunohistochemistry. Additionally, because of its high affinity for DREADDs, and its approved use in humans, we developed an individualized, low-dose clozapine administration strategy to induce DREADD-mediated amygdala inhibition. Compared to controls, clozapine selectively decreased anxiety-related freezing behavior in the human intruder paradigm in hM4Di-expressing monkeys, while coo vocalizations and locomotion were unaffected. These results are an important step in establishing chemogenetic strategies for patients with refractory neuropsychiatric disorders in which amygdala alterations are central to disease pathophysiology.

U-net model for brain extraction: Trained on humans for transfer to non-human primates

Brain extraction (a.k.a. skull stripping) is a fundamental step in the neuroimaging pipeline as it can affect the accuracy of downstream preprocess such as image registration, tissue classification, etc. Most brain extraction tools have been designed for and applied to human data and are often challenged by non-human primates (NHP) data. Amongst recent attempts to improve performance on NHP data, deep learning models appear to outperform the traditional tools. However, given the minimal sample size of most NHP studies and notable variations in data quality, the deep learning models are very rarely applied to multi-site samples in NHP imaging. To overcome this challenge, we used a transfer-learning framework that leverages a large human imaging dataset to pretrain a convolutional neural network (i.e. U-Net Model), and then transferred this to NHP data using a small NHP training sample. The resulting transfer-learning model converged faster and achieved more accurate performance than a similar U-Net Model trained exclusively on NHP samples. We improved the generalizability of the model by upgrading the transfer-learned model using additional training datasets from multiple research sites in the Primate Data-Exchange (PRIME-DE) consortium. Our final model outperformed brain extraction routines from popular MRI packages (AFNI, FSL, and FreeSurfer) across a heterogeneous sample from multiple sites in the PRIME-DE with less computational cost (20 s~10 min). We also demonstrated the transfer-learning process enables the macaque model to be updated for use with scans from chimpanzees, marmosets, and other mammals (e.g. pig). Our model, code, and the skull-stripped mask repository of 136 macaque monkeys are publicly available for unrestricted use by the neuroimaging community at https://github.com/HumanBrainED/NHP-BrainExtraction.

Combining brain perturbation and neuroimaging in non-human primates

Brain perturbation studies allow detailed causal inferences of behavioral and neural processes. Because the combination of brain perturbation methods and neural measurement techniques is inherently challenging, research in humans has predominantly focused on non-invasive, indirect brain perturbations, or neurological lesion studies. Non-human primates have been indispensable as a neurobiological system that is highly similar to humans while simultaneously being more experimentally tractable, allowing visualization of the functional and structural impact of systematic brain perturbation. This review considers the state of the art in non-human primate brain perturbation with a focus on approaches that can be combined with neuroimaging. We consider both non-reversible (lesions) and reversible or temporary perturbations such as electrical, pharmacological, optical, optogenetic, chemogenetic, pathway-selective, and ultrasound based interference methods. Method-specific considerations from the research and development community are offered to facilitate research in this field and support further innovations. We conclude by identifying novel avenues for further research and innovation and by highlighting the clinical translational potential of the methods.

Beyond MRI: on the scientific value of combining non-human primate neuroimaging with metadata

Sharing and pooling large amounts of non-human primate neuroimaging data offer new exciting opportunities to understand the primate brain. The potential of big data in non-human primate neuroimaging could however be tremendously enhanced by combining such neuroimaging data with other types of information. Here we describe metadata that have been identified as particularly valuable by the non-human primate neuroimaging community, including behavioural, genetic, physiological and phylogenetic data.

Visual Analytics for Decision-Making During Pandemics

We introduce a trans-disciplinary collaboration between researchers, healthcare practitioners, and community health partners in the Southwestern U.S. to enable improved management, response, and recovery to our current pandemic and for future health emergencies. Our Center work enables effective and efficient decision-making through interactive, human-guided analytical environments. We discuss our PanViz 2.0 system, a visual analytics application for supporting pandemic preparedness through a tightly coupled epidemiological model and interactive interface. We discuss our framework, current work, and plans to extend the system with exploration of what-if scenarios, interactive machine learning for model parameter inference, and analysis of mitigation strategies to facilitate decision-making during public health crises.

Sharing voxelwise neuroimaging results from rhesus monkeys and other species with Neurovault

Animal neuroimaging studies can provide unique insights into brain structure and function, and can be leveraged to bridge the gap between animal and human neuroscience. In part, this power comes from the ability to com bine mechanistic interventions with brain-wide neuroimaging. Due to their phylogenetic proximity to humans, nonhuman primate neuroimaging holds particular promise. Because nonhuman primate neuroimaging studies are often underpowered, there is a great need to share data amongst translational researchers. Data sharing efforts have been limited, however, by the lack of standardized tools and repositories through which nonhuman neuroimaging data can easily be archived and accessed. Here, we provide an extension of the Neurovault framework to enable sharing of statistical maps and related voxelwise neuroimaging data from other species and template-spaces. Neurovault, which was previously limited to human neuroimaging data, now allows researchers to easily upload and share nonhuman primate neuroimaging results. This promises to facilitate open, integrative cross-species science while affording researchers the increased statistical power provided by data aggregation. In addition, the Neurovault code-base now enables the addition of other species and template-spaces. Together, these advances promise to bring neuroimaging data sharing to research in other species, for supplemental data location-based atlases, and data that would otherwise be relegated to a “file-drawer”. As increasing numbers of researchers share their nonhuman neuroimaging data on Neurovault, this resource will enable novel, large-scale, cross-species comparisons that were previously impossible.

Transcriptional Profiling of Primate Central Nucleus of the Amygdala Neurons to Understand the Molecular Underpinnings of Early-Life Anxious Temperament

BACKGROUND

Children exhibiting extreme anxious temperament (AT) are at an increased risk for developing anxiety and depression. Our previous mechanistic and neuroimaging work in young rhesus monkeys linked the central nucleus of the amygdala to AT and its underlying neural circuit.

METHODS

Here, we used laser capture microscopy and RNA sequencing in 47 young rhesus monkeys to investigate AT's molecular underpinnings by focusing on neurons from the lateral division of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeL). RNA sequencing identified numerous AT-related CeL transcripts, and we used immunofluorescence (n = 3) and tract-tracing (n = 2) methods in a different sample of monkeys to examine the expression, distribution, and projection pattern of neurons expressing one of these transcripts.

RESULTS

We found 555 AT-related transcripts, 14 of which were confirmed with high statistical confidence (false discovery rate < .10), including protein kinase C delta (PKCδ), a CeL microcircuit cell marker implicated in rodent threat processing. We characterized PKCδ neurons in the rhesus CeL, compared its distribution with that of the mouse, and demonstrated that a subset of these neurons project to the laterodorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that CeL PKCδ is associated with primate anxiety, provides evidence of a CeL to laterodorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis circuit that may be relevant to understanding human anxiety, and points to specific molecules within this circuit that could serve as potential treatment targets for anxiety disorders.

Anxiety and the Neurobiology of Temporally Uncertain Threat Anticipation

When extreme, anxiety-a state of distress and arousal prototypically evoked by uncertain danger-can be debilitating. Uncertain anticipation is a shared feature of situations that elicit signs and symptoms of anxiety across psychiatric disorders, species, and assays. Despite the profound significance of anxiety for human health and wellbeing, the neurobiology of uncertain-threat anticipation remains unsettled. Leveraging a paradigm adapted from animal research and optimized for fMRI signal decomposition, we examined the neural circuits engaged during the anticipation of temporally uncertain and certain threat in 99 men and women. Results revealed that the neural systems recruited by uncertain and certain threat anticipation are anatomically colocalized in frontocortical regions, extended amygdala, and periaqueductal gray. Comparison of the threat conditions demonstrated that this circuitry can be fractionated, with frontocortical regions showing relatively stronger engagement during the anticipation of uncertain threat, and the extended amygdala showing the reverse pattern. Although there is widespread agreement that the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and dorsal amygdala-the two major subdivisions of the extended amygdala-play a critical role in orchestrating adaptive responses to potential danger, their precise contributions to human anxiety have remained contentious. Follow-up analyses demonstrated that these regions show statistically indistinguishable responses to temporally uncertain and certain threat anticipation. These observations provide a framework for conceptualizing anxiety and fear, for understanding the functional neuroanatomy of threat anticipation in humans, and for accelerating the development of more effective intervention strategies for pathological anxiety.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Anxiety-an emotion prototypically associated with the anticipation of uncertain harm-has profound significance for public health, yet the underlying neurobiology remains unclear. Leveraging a novel neuroimaging paradigm in a relatively large sample, we identify a core circuit responsive to both uncertain and certain threat anticipation, and show that this circuitry can be fractionated into subdivisions with a bias for one kind of threat or the other. The extended amygdala occupies center stage in neuropsychiatric models of anxiety, but its functional architecture has remained contentious. Here we demonstrate that its major subdivisions show statistically indistinguishable responses to temporally uncertain and certain threat. Collectively, these observations indicate the need to revise how we think about the neurobiology of anxiety and fear.

Dorsal Amygdala Neurotrophin-3 Decreases Anxious Temperament in Primates

BACKGROUND

An early-life anxious temperament (AT) is a risk factor for the development of anxiety, depression, and comorbid substance abuse. We validated a nonhuman primate model of early-life AT and identified the dorsal amygdala as a core component of AT's neural circuit. Here, we combine RNA sequencing, viral-vector gene manipulation, functional brain imaging, and behavioral phenotyping to uncover AT's molecular substrates.

METHODS

In response to potential threat, AT and brain metabolism were assessed in 46 young rhesus monkeys. We identified AT-related transcripts using RNA-sequencing data from dorsal amygdala tissue (including central nucleus of the amygdala [Ce] and dorsal regions of the basal nucleus). Based on the results, we overexpressed the neurotrophin-3 gene, NTF3, in the dorsal amygdala using intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging-guided surgery (n = 5 per group).

RESULTS

This discovery-based approach identified AT-related alterations in the expression of well-established and novel genes, including an inverse association between NTRK3 expression and AT. NTRK3 is an interesting target because it is a relatively unexplored neurotrophic factor that modulates intracellular neuroplasticity pathways. Overexpression of the transcript for NTRK3's endogenous ligand, NTF3, in the dorsal amygdala resulted in reduced AT and altered function in AT's neural circuit.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these data implicate neurotrophin-3/NTRK3 signaling in the dorsal amygdala in mediating primate anxiety. More generally, this approach provides an important step toward understanding the molecular underpinnings of early-life AT and will be useful in guiding the development of treatments to prevent the development of stress-related psychopathology.

The Relationship Between the Uncinate Fasciculus and Anxious Temperament Is Evolutionarily Conserved and Sexually Dimorphic

BACKGROUND

Anxious temperament (AT) is an early-life heritable trait that predisposes individuals to develop anxiety and depressive disorders. Our previous work in preadolescent children suggests alterations in the uncinate fasciculus (UF), the white matter tract that connects prefrontal with limbic regions, in boys with anxiety disorders. Here, using a nonhuman primate model of AT, we tested whether this sexually dimorphic finding is evolutionarily conserved and examined the extent to which heritable and environmental influences contribute to UF microstructure.

METHODS

Diffusion tensor images were collected in 581 young rhesus monkeys (1.89 ± 0.77 years old; 43.9% female). Using tract-based analyses, we assessed the relationship among AT, UF microstructure (as measured with fractional anisotropy), and sex. Heritability of tract microstructure was determined using oligogenic linkage analysis of this large multigenerational pedigree.

RESULTS

We predicted and found a negative relation between AT and UF fractional anisotropy in male but not female monkeys (AT × sex; p = .032, 1-tailed). Additionally, heritability analyses revealed that variation in UF fractional anisotropy was largely due to nonheritable factors (h² = 0.185, p = .077).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate a cross-species, male-specific relation between UF microstructure and anxiety and provide a potential substrate for anxiety-related prefrontal-limbic dysregulation. The heritability analyses point to the importance of environmental influences on UF microstructure, which could be important in mediating the nonheritable components of pathological anxiety. These findings have the potential to guide new treatment strategies for childhood anxiety disorders and further support the use of nonhuman primates as a translational model to discover mechanisms underlying the development of anxiety.

Serotonin Transporter Binding Potentials in Brain of Juvenile Monkeys 1 Year After Discontinuation of a 2-Year Treatment With Fluoxetine

BACKGROUND

The potential long-term effects of childhood fluoxetine therapy on brain serotonin systems were studied using a nonhuman primate model, the rhesus monkey.

METHODS

Juvenile male rhesus (1-4 years of age, corresponding to 4-11 years of age in children) were treated orally with fluoxetine (2 mg/kg) or vehicle daily for 2 years and removed from treatment during the third year. Each treatment group was assigned an equal number of subjects with low and high transcription polymorphisms of MAOA. One year after discontinuation of treatment, positron emission tomography scans were conducted (n = 8 treated monkeys, n = 8 control monkeys) using [¹¹C]DASB to quantify serotonin transporter in 16 cortical and subcortical regions.

RESULTS

Fluoxetine-treated monkeys with MAOA low transcription polymorphism had significantly lower [¹¹C]DASB binding potentials than control monkeys. This finding was seen throughout the brain but was strongest in prefrontal and cingulate cortices. The MAOA × fluoxetine interaction was enhanced by binding potentials that were nonsignificantly higher in monkeys with high transcription polymorphism.

CONCLUSIONS

Juvenile fluoxetine treatment has residual posttreatment effects on brain serotonin transporter that depend on MAOA genotype. MAOA genotype may be important to consider when treating children with fluoxetine.

Dispositional negativity, cognition, and anxiety disorders: An integrative translational neuroscience framework

When extreme, anxiety can become debilitating. Anxiety disorders, which often first emerge early in development, are common and challenging to treat, yet the underlying mechanisms have only recently begun to come into focus. Here, we review new insights into the nature and biological bases of dispositional negativity, a fundamental dimension of childhood temperament and adult personality and a prominent risk factor for the development of pediatric and adult anxiety disorders. Converging lines of epidemiological, neurobiological, and mechanistic evidence suggest that dispositional negativity increases the likelihood of psychopathology via specific neurocognitive mechanisms, including attentional biases to threat and deficits in executive control. Collectively, these observations provide an integrative translational framework for understanding the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders in adults and youth and set the stage for developing improved intervention strategies.

Altered Uncinate Fasciculus Microstructure in Childhood Anxiety Disorders in Boys But Not Girls

OBJECTIVE

Anxiety disorders are common, can result in lifelong suffering, and frequently begin before adolescence. Evidence from adults suggests that altered prefrontal-limbic connectivity is a pathophysiological feature of anxiety disorders. More specifically, in adults with anxiety disorders, decreased fractional anisotropy (FA), a measure of white matter integrity, has been observed in the uncinate fasciculus, the major tract that connects limbic and prefrontal regions. Because of the early onset of anxiety disorders and the increased incidence in anxiety disorders in females during their reproductive years, it is important to understand whether the reduction in uncinate fasciculus FA exists in children with anxiety disorders and the extent to which this alteration is sex related. To address these issues, the authors assessed FA in the uncinate fasciculus in unmedicated boys and girls with anxiety disorders.

METHODS

FA measures were derived from diffusion tensor images that were acquired from 98 unmedicated children (ages 8-12); 52 met criteria for generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, or anxiety disorder not otherwise specified, and 46 were matched control subjects.

RESULTS

Tract-based results demonstrated that children with anxiety disorders have significant reductions in uncinate fasciculus FA. A significant sex-by-group interaction and post hoc testing revealed that this effect was evident only in boys. No other main effects or sex-by-group interactions were found for other white matter tracts.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide evidence of uncinate fasciculus white matter alterations in boys with anxiety disorders. The data demonstrate that anxiety disorder-related alterations in prefrontal-limbic structural connectivity are present early in life, are not related to psychotropic medication exposure, and are sex specific. Building on these findings, future research has the potential to provide insights into the genesis and sexual dimorphism of the pathophysiology that leads to anxiety disorders, as well as to identify sex-specific early-life treatment targets.

The central extended amygdala in fear and anxiety: Closing the gap between mechanistic and neuroimaging research

Anxiety disorders impose a staggering burden on public health, underscoring the need to develop a deeper understanding of the distributed neural circuits underlying extreme fear and anxiety. Recent work highlights the importance of the central extended amygdala, including the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) and neighboring bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST). Anatomical data indicate that the Ce and BST form a tightly interconnected unit, where different kinds of threat-relevant information can be integrated to assemble states of fear and anxiety. Neuroimaging studies show that the Ce and BST are engaged by a broad spectrum of potentially threat-relevant cues. Mechanistic work demonstrates that the Ce and BST are critically involved in organizing defensive responses to a wide range of threats. Studies in rodents have begun to reveal the specific molecules, cells, and microcircuits within the central extended amygdala that underlie signs of fear and anxiety, but the relevance of these tantalizing discoveries to human experience and disease remains unclear. Using a combination of focal perturbations and whole-brain imaging, a new generation of nonhuman primate studies is beginning to close this gap. This work opens the door to discovering the mechanisms underlying neuroimaging measures linked to pathological fear and anxiety, to understanding how the Ce and BST interact with one another and with distal brain regions to govern defensive responses to threat, and to developing improved intervention strategies.

Somatostatin Gene and Protein Expression in the Non-human Primate Central Extended Amygdala

Alterations in central extended amygdala (EAc) function have been linked to anxiety, depression, and anxious temperament (AT), the early-life risk to develop these disorders. The EAc is composed of the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce), the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), and the sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEA). Using a non-human primate model of AT and multimodal neuroimaging, the Ce and the BST were identified as key AT-related regions. Both areas are primarily comprised of GABAergic neurons and the lateral Ce (CeL) and lateral BST (BSTL) have among the highest expression of neuropeptides in the brain. Somatostatin (SST) is of particular interest because mouse studies demonstrate that SST neurons, along with corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neurons, contribute to a threat-relevant EAc microcircuit. Although the distribution of CeL and BSTL SST neurons has been explored in rodents, this system is not well described in non-human primates. In situ hybridization demonstrated an anterior-posterior gradient of SST mRNA in the CeL but not the BSTL of non-human primates. Triple-labeling immunofluorescence staining revealed that SST protein-expressing cell bodies are a small proportion of the total CeL and BSTL neurons and have considerable co-labeling with CRF. The SLEA exhibited strong SST mRNA and protein expression, suggesting a role for SST in mediating information transfer between the CeL and BSTL. These data provide the foundation for mechanistic non-human primate studies focused on understanding EAc function in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Dispositional negativity in the wild: Social environment governs momentary emotional experience

Dispositional negativity-the tendency to experience more frequent or intense negative emotions-is a fundamental dimension of temperament and personality. Elevated levels of dispositional negativity have profound consequences for public health and wealth, drawing the attention of researchers, clinicians, and policymakers. Yet, relatively little is known about the factors that govern the momentary expression of dispositional negativity in the real world. Here, we used smart phone-based experience-sampling to demonstrate that the social environment plays a central role in shaping the moment-by-moment emotional experience of 127 young adults selectively recruited to represent a broad spectrum of dispositional negativity. Results indicate that individuals with a more negative disposition derive much larger emotional benefits from the company of close companions-friends, romantic partners, and family members-and that these benefits reflect heightened feelings of social connection and acceptance. These results set the stage for developing improved interventions and provide new insights into the interaction of emotional traits and situations in the real world, close to clinically and practically important end-points. (PsycINFO Database Record

Parsing affective dynamics to identify risk for mood and anxiety disorders

Emotional dysregulation is thought to underlie risk for both anxiety and depressive disorders. However, despite high rates of comorbidity, anxiety and depression are phenotypically different. Apart from nosological differences (e.g., worry for anxiety, low mood for depression), it remains unclear how the emotional dysregulation inherent in individual differences in trait anxiety and depression severity present on a day-to-day basis. One approach that may facilitate addressing these questions is to utilize Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) using mobile phones to parse the temporal dynamics of affective experiences into specific parameters. An emerging literature in affective science suggests that risk for anxiety and depressive disorders may be associated with variation in the mean and instability/variability of emotion. Here we examine the extent to which distinct temporal dynamic parameters uniquely predict risk for anxiety versus depression. Over 10 days, 105 individuals rated their current positive and negative affective state several times each day. Using two distinct approaches to statistically assess mean and instability of positive and negative affect, we found that individual differences in trait anxiety was generally associated with increased instability of positive and negative affect whereas mean levels of positive and negative affect were generally associated with individual differences in depression. These data provide evidence that the emotional dysregulation underlying risk for mood versus anxiety disorders unfolds in distinct ways and highlights the utility in examining affective dynamics to understand psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

SurePath Specimens Versus ThinPrep Specimen Types on the COBAS 4800 Platform: High-Risk HPV Status and Cytology Correlation in an Ethnically Diverse Bronx Population

Objective

To compare the cytologic preparations of 130 cervical specimens (from women of various ethnicities at high risk for human papillomavirus [HPV] infection) using the SurePath (SP) collection system with specimens gathered using the ThinPrep (TP) system, as processed on the Cobas 4800 analyzer, to determine which collection method more accurately identifies HPV infection.

Methods

In our prospective study, specimens were collected from 130 women of various ethnicities residing in or near Bronx County, NY. The SP-collected specimen was first processed for cytologic findings; if clinical HPV testing was requested on that specimen, it was tested using Hybrid Capture II (HC2) methodology. We tested the remnant SP-collected cell concentrate using the Cobas analyzer. Then, the TP-collected and SP-collected specimens were tested in the same run on that analyzer, and the results were compared. We also compared the results with the concurrent cytologic findings.

Results

The results were concordant for overall HR-HPV status in 93.8% of cases. Also, a statistically significant lower cycle threshold value was observed with Cobas testing of specimen concentrates tested via the BD SurePath Pap Test (P = .001), suggesting higher sensitivity compared with specimens tested via the ThinPrep Pap Test.

Conclusion

Cobas 4800 HPV testing of SP-collected specimen concentrates yields comparable results to TP-collected specimen concentrates. Based on the limited data that we derived, SP collection may be a more favorable methodology than TP collection for HPV testing of individuals at high risk in our ethnically diverse, urban patient population.

Intrinsic functional connectivity of the central extended amygdala

The central extended amygdala (EAc)-including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) and central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce)-plays a critical role in triggering fear and anxiety and is implicated in the development of a range of debilitating neuropsychiatric disorders. Although it is widely believed that these disorders reflect the coordinated activity of distributed neural circuits, the functional architecture of the EAc network and the degree to which the BST and the Ce show distinct patterns of functional connectivity is unclear. Here, we used a novel combination of imaging approaches to trace the connectivity of the BST and the Ce in 130 healthy, racially diverse, community-dwelling adults. Multiband imaging, high-precision registration techniques, and spatially unsmoothed data maximized anatomical specificity. Using newly developed seed regions, whole-brain regression analyses revealed robust functional connectivity between the BST and Ce via the sublenticular extended amygdala, the ribbon of subcortical gray matter encompassing the ventral amygdalofugal pathway. Both regions displayed coupling with the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), midcingulate cortex (MCC), insula, and anterior hippocampus. The BST showed stronger connectivity with the thalamus, striatum, periaqueductal gray, and several prefrontal territories. The only regions showing stronger functional connectivity with the Ce were neighboring regions of the dorsal amygdala, amygdalohippocampal area, and anterior hippocampus. These observations provide a baseline against which to compare a range of special populations, inform our understanding of the role of the EAc in normal and pathological fear and anxiety, and showcase image registration techniques that are likely to be useful for researchers working with "deidentified" neuroimaging data.

Connectivity between the central nucleus of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in the non-human primate: neuronal tract tracing and developmental neuroimaging studies

The lateral division of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTL) and central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) form the two poles of the 'central extended amygdala', a theorized subcortical macrostructure important in threat-related processing. Our previous work in nonhuman primates, and humans, demonstrating strong resting fMRI connectivity between the Ce and BSTL regions, provides evidence for the integrated activity of these structures. To further understand the anatomical substrates that underlie this coordinated function, and to investigate the integrity of the central extended amygdala early in life, we examined the intrinsic connectivity between the Ce and BSTL in non-human primates using ex vivo neuronal tract tracing, and in vivo diffusion-weighted imaging and resting fMRI techniques. The tracing studies revealed that BSTL receives strong input from Ce; however, the reciprocal pathway is less robust, implying that the primate Ce is a major modulator of BSTL function. The sublenticular extended amygdala (SLEAc) is strongly and reciprocally connected to both Ce and BSTL, potentially allowing the SLEAc to modulate information flow between the two structures. Longitudinal early-life structural imaging in a separate cohort of monkeys revealed that extended amygdala white matter pathways are in place as early as 3 weeks of age. Interestingly, resting functional connectivity between Ce and BSTL regions increases in coherence from 3 to 7 weeks of age. Taken together, these findings demonstrate a time period during which information flow between Ce and BSTL undergoes postnatal developmental changes likely via direct Ce → BSTL and/or Ce ↔ SLEAc ↔ BSTL projections.

Dispositional negativity: An integrative psychological and neurobiological perspective

Dispositional negativity-the propensity to experience and express more frequent, intense, or enduring negative affect-is a fundamental dimension of childhood temperament and adult personality. Elevated levels of dispositional negativity can have profound consequences for health, wealth, and happiness, drawing the attention of clinicians, researchers, and policymakers. Here, we highlight recent advances in our understanding of the psychological and neurobiological processes linking stable individual differences in dispositional negativity to momentary emotional states. Self-report data suggest that 3 key pathways-increased stressor reactivity, tonic increases in negative affect, and increased stressor exposure-explain most of the heightened negative affect that characterizes individuals with a more negative disposition. Of these 3 pathways, tonically elevated, indiscriminate negative affect appears to be most central to daily life and most relevant to the development of psychopathology. New behavioral and biological data provide insights into the neural systems underlying these 3 pathways and motivate the hypothesis that seemingly "tonic" increases in negative affect may actually reflect increased reactivity to stressors that are remote, uncertain, or diffuse. Research focused on humans, monkeys, and rodents suggests that this indiscriminate negative affect reflects trait-like variation in the activity and connectivity of several key brain regions, including the central extended amygdala and parts of the prefrontal cortex. Collectively, these observations provide an integrative psychobiological framework for understanding the dynamic cascade of processes that bind emotional traits to emotional states and, ultimately, to emotional disorders and other kinds of adverse outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record

Overexpressing Corticotropin-Releasing Factor in the Primate Amygdala Increases Anxious Temperament and Alters Its Neural Circuit

BACKGROUND

Nonhuman primate models are critical for understanding mechanisms underlying human psychopathology. We established a nonhuman primate model of anxious temperament (AT) for studying the early-life risk to develop anxiety and depression. Studies have identified the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) as an essential component of AT's neural substrates. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is expressed in the Ce, has a role in stress, and is linked to psychopathology. Here, in young rhesus monkeys, we combined viral vector technology with assessments of anxiety and multimodal neuroimaging to understand the consequences of chronically increased CRF in the Ce region.

METHODS

Using real-time intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging-guided convection-enhanced delivery, five monkeys received bilateral dorsal amygdala Ce-region infusions of adeno-associated virus serotype 2 containing the CRF construct. Their cagemates served as unoperated control subjects. AT, regional brain metabolism, resting functional magnetic resonance imaging, and diffusion tensor imaging were assessed before and 2 months after viral infusions.

RESULTS

Dorsal amygdala CRF overexpression significantly increased AT and metabolism within the dorsal amygdala. Additionally, we observed changes in metabolism in other AT-related regions, as well as in measures of functional and structural connectivity.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a translational roadmap that is important for understanding human psychopathology by combining molecular manipulations used in rodents with behavioral phenotyping and multimodal neuroimaging measures used in humans. The results indicate that chronic CRF overexpression in primates not only increases AT but also affects metabolism and connectivity within components of AT's neural circuitry.

Contributions of the Central Extended Amygdala to Fear and Anxiety

It is widely thought that phasic and sustained responses to threat reflect dissociable circuits centered on the central nucleus of the amygdala (Ce) and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), the two major subdivisions of the central extended amygdala. Early versions of this hypothesis remain highly influential and have been incorporated into the National Institute of Mental Health Research Research Domain Criteria framework. However, new observations encourage a different perspective. Anatomical studies show that the Ce and BST form a tightly interconnected unit, where different kinds of threat-relevant information can be integrated and used to assemble states of fear and anxiety. Imaging studies in humans and monkeys show that the Ce and BST exhibit similar functional profiles. Both regions are sensitive to a range of aversive challenges, including uncertain or temporally remote threat; both covary with concurrent signs and symptoms of fear and anxiety; both show phasic responses to short-lived threat; and both show heightened activity during sustained exposure to diffusely threatening contexts. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that both regions can control the expression of fear and anxiety during sustained exposure to diffuse threat. These observations compel a reconsideration of the central extended amygdala's contributions to fear and anxiety and its role in neuropsychiatric disease.

A Comparative Trial of Minocin (Minocycline Hydrochloride) and Ampicillin in the Treatment of Acute Exacerbations of Chronic Bronchitis

One hundred and fifteen patients suffering from acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis took part in a double-blind, multicentre, clinical trial designed to compare the therapeutic efficacy and tolerability of ampicillin and minocycline hydrochloride, a new, long-acting, semi-synthetic tetracycline.

Both antibiotics were equally successful in treatment, there being no statistically significant difference between the two in any of the parameters studied.

Side-effects were few and far between. Only one patient out of the 57 who took minocycline, complained of dizziness.

Efficacy of ACL injury risk screening methods in identifying high-risk landing patterns during a sport-specific task

Screening methods sensitive to movement strategies that increase anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) loads are likely to be effective in identifying athletes at-risk of ACL injury. Current ACL injury risk screening methods are yet to be evaluated for their ability to identify athletes' who exhibit high-risk lower limb mechanics during sport-specific maneuvers associated with ACL injury occurrences. The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of two ACL injury risk screening methods in identifying high-risk lower limb mechanics during a sport-specific landing task. Thirty-two female athletes were screened using the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) and Tuck Jump Assessment. Participants' also completed a sport-specific landing task, during which three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic data were collected. One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping was used to examine the relationships between screening method scores, and the three-dimensional hip and knee joint rotation and moment data from the sport-specific landing. Higher LESS scores were associated with reduced knee flexion from 30 to 57 ms after initial contact (P = 0.003) during the sport-specific landing; however, no additional relationships were found. These findings suggest the LESS and Tuck Jump Assessment may have minimal applicability in identifying athletes' who exhibit high-risk landing postures in the sport-specific task examined.

The neurobiology of dispositional negativity and attentional biases to threat: Implications for understanding anxiety disorders in adults and youth

When extreme, anxiety can become debilitating. Anxiety disorders, which often first emerge early in development, are common and challenging to treat, yet the neurocognitive mechanisms that confer increased risk have only recently begun to come into focus. Here we review recent work highlighting the importance of neural circuits centered on the amygdala. We begin by describing dispositional negativity, a core dimension of childhood temperament and adult personality and an important risk factor for the development of anxiety disorders and other kinds of stress-sensitive psychopathology. Converging lines of epidemiological, neurophysiological, and mechanistic evidence indicate that the amygdala supports stable individual differences in dispositional negativity across the lifespan and contributes to the etiology of anxiety disorders in adults and youth. Hyper-vigilance and attentional biases to threat are prominent features of the anxious phenotype and there is growing evidence that they contribute to the development of psychopathology. Anatomical studies show that the amygdala is a hub, poised to govern attention to threat via projections to sensory cortex and ascending neuromodulatory systems. Imaging and lesion studies demonstrate that the amygdala plays a key role in selecting and prioritizing the processing of threat-related cues. Collectively, these observations provide a neurobiologically-grounded framework for understanding the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders in adults and youth and set the stage for developing improved intervention strategies.

The Role of Compassion in Altruistic Helping and Punishment Behavior

Compassion, the emotional response of caring for another who is suffering and that results in motivation to relieve suffering, is thought to be an emotional antecedent to altruistic behavior. However, it remains unclear whether compassion enhances altruistic behavior in a uniform way or is specific to sub-types of behavior such as altruistic helping of a victim or altruistic punishment of a transgressor. We investigated the relationship between compassion and subtypes of altruistic behavior using third-party paradigms where participants (1) witnessed an unfair economic exchange between a transgressor and a victim, and (2) had the opportunity to either spend personal funds to either economically (a) help the victim or (b) punish the transgressor. In Study 1, we examined whether individual differences in self-reported empathic concern (the emotional component of compassion) was associated with greater altruistic helping or punishment behavior in two independent samples. For participants who witnessed an unfair transaction, trait empathic concern was associated with greater helping of a victim and had no relationship to punishment. However, in those who decided to punish the transgressor, participants who reported greater empathic concern decided to punish less. In Study 2, we directly enhanced compassion using short-term online compassion meditation training to examine whether altruistic helping and punishment were increased after two weeks of training. Compared to an active reappraisal training control group, the compassion training group gave more to help the victim and did not differ in punishment of the transgressor. Together, these two studies suggest that compassion is related to greater altruistic helping of victims and is not associated with or may mitigate altruistic punishment of transgressors.