Long-term ultrasound follow-up of intrathyroidal ectopic thymus in children

OBJECTIVE

To present the sonographic follow-up of intrathyroidal ectopic thymus (IET) in children and adolescent patients.

PATIENTS

Out of the 507 children referred to FNAB between 2006 and 2018, 30 (5.9%) pediatric patients (10 females), mean age 5.7 years (1.2-13.8, median 4.9 years) were diagnosed with IET.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of medical files of patients diagnosed with IET between 2006 and 2018. Assessed data included ultrasound characterisation, elastographic strain ratio (SR) results and hormonal evaluation.

RESULTS

Analysis of thyroid US scans revealed that the mean age at the first thyroid ultrasound was 5.7 (1.2-13.8, median 4.9) years, and at the last US 10.7 (3.7-18, median 10.5) years. The mean time of the IET observation was 59.6 (2-148, median 53.5) months. On US, IET was hypoechoic with multiple linear and punctate echoes, hypovascular, fusiform on longitudinal plane and round or polygonal on an axial plane, more common in the right thyroid lobe (66.7%) and located in the posterior part of the lobes (54.5%), bilateral in two patients and multifocal in one patient. SR of IET was similar to the surrounding normal thyroid tissue. Complete regression of IET was observed in 12/30 patients after a mean time of 81.7 months (median 76.5), at the mean age of 13.7 (9.2-18, median 13.9) years. FNAB was performed in 10/30 and a hemithyroidectomy in 1/30 IET patients. In the FNAB (+) group, patients were younger (5.08 vs 6.08 years) and lesions were larger (0.12 ml vs 0.05 ml) than in the FNAB (-) group. All patients with IET were euthyroid with negative TPOAb and TgAb levels.

CONCLUSION

The reproducibility of unique ultrasound features of IETs allows for safe long-term follow-up of these benign lesions in the majority of pediatric patients: not only monitoring the regression of IET but also screening towards the rare occurrence of a tumor arising from the IET.

Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction in the developmental period: prenatally, in childhood, and adolescence - case reports and a review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Amiodarone is an important antiarrhythmic drug used in paediatric practice, mainly in children with complex congenital cardiac diseases and/or severe arrhythmias. One of the side effects of amiodarone therapy is thyroid dysfunction, which is observed in about 20% of patients. The thyroid dysfunction may present with various forms: from subclinical changes in hormone levels to amiodaroneinduced thyrotoxicosis (AIT) and amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism (AIH).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We reported six patients in the age range from two weeks to 14 years, with complex congenital cardiac diseases and severe arrhythmias, who developed amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunctions: thyrotoxicosis or hypothyroidism or both together. The clinical signs and symptoms of all thyroid dysfunctions were atypical, most patients presented with an aggravation of heart insufficiency. Our patients with thyrotoxicosis were treated with combined therapy including thionamides and corticosteroids due to the presentation of mixed-identified type of AIT.

RESULTS

Currently, five patients (one patient's status is unknown) are in biochemical and clinical euthyreosis; however, in one of them it was impossible to discharge amiodarone treatment. Three of them are still treated with levothyroxine, and two do not need thyroid treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Amiodarone-induced thyroid dysfunction is usually atypical; therefore, monitoring of thyroid status before, during, and after amiodarone is demanded. AIH could significantly influence the development of the child, while AIT could significantly deteriorate the clinical status of children with complex cardiac diseases. Early and proper diagnose of AIT and AIH allows the introduction of immediate and appropriate treatment considering the cardiac condition of the young patient.

Cyclic Cushing's Disease in the Prepubertal Period-A Case Report and Review of Literature

Background: Cyclic Cushing's disease (CD) has been described in about 15% of adult patients with CD. In the pediatric population, diagnosis of CD is rare and cyclic presentations of the disease are not adequately understood or described. Moreover, prepubertal patients usually do not present with the typical signs and symptoms of CD, which can obscure or delay diagnosis. In this paper, we report a case of cyclic CD in a prepubertal age girls whose etiology was a pituitary corticotropinoma. Case presentation: A Caucasian 7.8 year old girl was admitted to pediatric endocrinology for the evaluation of short stature and prior obesity. The patient remained overweight despite significant lifestyle modifications, resulting in 6 kg weight loss during the prior 6 months. The physical exam was notable for precocious adrenarche and thelarche, but difficult to differentiate from steatomastia. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis diagnostics, including single diurnal excretion of urinary cortisol, morning ACTH, and serum cortisol levels, were all within normal limits, and MRI of the pituitary gland showed no deviations at this time. Because of the clinical suspicion of cyclic hypercortisolemia, she was referred to our outpatient clinic for follow-up. After 6 months, the patient returned with rapid weight gain, accompanied by nocturnal anxiety, exacerbation of depressive behavior, insomnia and excessive sweating, and was readmitted to the ward for testing. Standard diagnostics confirmed CD and repeat MRI at 8.6 years old showed a microadenoma of 3 × 4 mm in the right side of the anterior pituitary gland. Histopathologic examination described an atypical, densely-granulated pituitary corticotroph adenoma with Ki-67 expression above 3%. Conclusion: Cyclic presentations of CD in the prepubescent age group could cause difficulties in diagnosis because of atypical signs and symptoms, which can be absent in the remission phase. Decreases in height percentiles and velocities obtained from the growth chart, as well as fluctuations in weight, and signs of androgenization can allow the clinician to suspect cycling CD in prepubertal patients. Confirmation of cyclic CD diagnosis is only possible during periods of relapse (hypercortisolemic state) and should be investigated according to the current diagnostic standard.

The potential impact of the hypovitaminosis D on metabolic complications in obese adolescents - Preliminary results

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

Vitamin D deficiency is common in obesity; however, its contribution in the development of metabolic complications remains uncertain. The aim of the study was to examine the relationships between vitamin D status and metabolic complications.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The results of blood pressure measurements, biochemical tests and ultrasound of the liver were compared in both groups. The study was conducted at the Children's University Hospital in Krakow, Poland. 30 obese adolescents (mean 13.23y.o.); 18 with 25OHD levels <20ng/mL, 12 with 25OHD>20 ng/mL.

RESULTS

The vitamin D deficient group presented with significantly higher values of the diastolic blood pressure (125.9vs.115mmHg), uric acid level (384.7vs.301.5umol/L) and lower phosphorus level (1.4vs.1.65mmol/L), higher prevalence of arterial hypertension (44vs.8.3%), and liver steatosis (25vs.8.3%); lower, but not significantly, levels of fibroblast growth factor 23 and fibroblast growth factor 19.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypovitaminosis D in obese adolescents is associated with higher prevalence of arterial hypertension, liver steatosis, elevated serum uric acid and low phosphorus levels. The potential contribution of the fibroblast growth factor 23 and fibroblast growth factor 19 in these complications development needs further investigation.

Novel insights in ultrasound evaluation of thyroid gland in children with papillary thyroid carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The coincidence of autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is ranging between 10 and 58% in the general population.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In the present study retrospective ultrasound, clinical and autoimmune assessment of 24 patients diagnosed with papillary thyroid carcinoma between 2000-2016 was performed.

RESULTS

The coexistence of PTC and AIT was found in 50% of patients with PTC. Patients were divided into two groups. PTC AIT (+) group involved 12 children at the mean age 14.9 years (range 11-20 years, 9 girls) and PTC AIT (-) 12 children at the mean age 12.9 years (range 7-18 years, 5 girls). Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma (PTMC) was diagnosed in 6 patients (in 5 with AIT). US characteristics of PTC was heterogenous: hypoechogenic with/without increased vascularisation, normoechogenic with halo, with/without microcalcifications. In 70% PTC AIT (+) and in all PTC AIT (-) patients ultrasound analysis revealed that the thyroid tissue of the whole gland was normoechogenic. Local metastases in lymph nodes were found in 40% of PTMC AIT (+).

CONCLUSION

Lack of increased vascularization and microcalcifications and presence of``halo`in the nodule does not exclude malignancy. Due to the presence of lymph node involvement in PTMC in all children with PTC total thyroidectomy should be performed with lymph nodes verification.

The first description of metyrapone use in severe Cushing Syndrome due to ectopic ACTH secretion in an infant with immature sacrococcygeal teratoma. Case Report

Cushing syndrome due to ectopic secretion of ACTH in infants is rare. The treatment of choice is radical resection of the tumour in combination with pre-operative chemotherapy using steroidogenesis inhibitors if necessary. If radical surgery is not possible, palliative treatment of hypercortisolemia is recommended. The most frequently used drug in infants is ketoconazole. Experience with the use of metyrapone is poor. We report an 8-month-old female infant with congenital immature sacrococcygeal teratoma secreting AFP, beta hCG and ACTH who had undergone non-radical resection of the tumour mass and was receiving standard risk chemotherapy (vinblastine, bleomycin, and cisplatin). The infant initially presented at the age of 6 months with ACTH-dependent Cushing syndrome (cortisol and ACTH level 325 ng/mL, 112 pg/mL respectively). Treatment with ketoconazole was initiated with a dose of 600 mg/day. Due to its ineffectiveness metyrapne was added in increasing dosages, up to 1,500 mg/day. In addition the schema of chemotherapy was changed (adriamycin, bleomycin, carboplatin), which resulted in normalization of cortisol levels and blood pressure. There were no metyrapone side effects during the treatment period. We can conclude that treatment with metyrapone at a dose of 1500 mg/day might be effective and safe in infants with Cushing syndrome.

Cerebral salt wasting in a postoperative period

Cerebral salt wasting syndrome (CSW-cerebral salt wasting) was first described in 1950 by Peters. This syndrome can occur in patients who have sustained damage to the central nervous system (e.g. patients with subarachnoid bleeding, bacterial meningitis or after neurosurgery). Patients present with excessive natriuresis and hyponatremic dehydration. Differentiating this syndrome with the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH-syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion), which may occur in the same group of patients, is necessary in order to administer the correct treatment which consists of fluid restriction and sodium replacement in SIADH and fluid and sodium replacement as well as occasional mineralocorticoid therapy in CSW.

[Hypertension in obese children and adolescents]

BACKGROUND

The frequency of arterial hypertension (AHT) in children is around 3.2-4.5% nowadays, however 3-4 decades ago it was below 1.5%. In obese children AHT is 3-5 times more frequent than in lean children.

AIM

Retrospective evaluation of frequency of AHT and metabolic complications in obese children and adolescents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One hundred seventy children and adolescents (100 girls) at the mean age of 14.6 years (range: 10-18 years) diagnosed with simple obesity admitted to The Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology in Krakow, Poland were assessed in the study. Patients were divided into three groups: 1- obese normotensive (n=43), 2- obese prehypertensive (n=31), 3- obese hypertensive (n=96). Blood pressure (BP) was assessed by Korotkow method. The result was expressed as a mean of 3 independent BP measurements. Biochemical analysis included oral glucose tolerance test with assessments of glucose, insulin and HOMA-IR (the homeostatic index for insulin resistance) as well as lipid profile and uric acid measurements.

RESULTS

AHT was found in 96 patients (55.8%), in 53 girls (52%) and 43 boys (61.4%). Prehypertensive values of BP were found in 31 patients (18 girls). Systolic AHT was found in 90 patients (52.9%), diastolic AHT in 56 patients (32.9%), and both systolic and diastolic AHT in 50 patients (29.4%). In group 3. BMI was higher than in group 1. BMI correlated significantly with systolic and diastolic BP. Uric acid levels were higher in group 3. than in group 1., and higher in patients with diastolic AHT. Basal insulin levels were higher in diastolic AHT patients and poststimulatory insulin was higher in systolic AHT patients. HOMA-IR was higher in patients with diastolic AHT than in patients with normal diastolic BP. Lipid profile did not differ between the groups, however the highest percentage of patients with abnormal lipid profile was found in group 2.

CONCLUSION

An early endocrine referral in pediatric obese patients is advisable to monitor complications of obesity.

A decrease in fasting FGF19 levels is associated with the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in obese adolescents

AIM

Fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) is a hormone released from the small intestine; recently, it has emerged as an endocrine regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of FGF19 in the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

PATIENTS

This study included 23 (17 boys) obese adolescents (mean age of 14.1 years) with NAFLD. The control group consisted of 34 (13 boys) obese peers with normal ultrasonographic imaging and normal liver function tests.

METHODS

The definition of NAFLD was based on clinical criteria: elevated alanine aminotransferase (>35 U/L) and liver steatosis features on ultrasound imaging. Serum FGF19 levels were measured in a fasting blood sample. The definition of insulin resistance was based on the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) threshold: >2.5.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference between mean FGF19 levels in patients with NAFLD and controls (142.2 vs. 206 pg/mL, p=0.04). Mean fasting FGF19 levels were decreased in insulin-resistant patients in comparison with the non-insulin-resistant group (155.0 vs. 221.0 pg/mL, p=0.05). There was an inverse correlation between FGF19 and alanine aminotransferase levels (R=-0.3, p<0.05) and triglycerides (R=-0.27, p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

A decrease in fasting FGF19 is associated with the development of NAFLD in obese adolescents. A decrease in fasting FGF19 levels may be a new important risk factor for NAFLD and the metabolic syndrome in adolescents. Further studies are needed to explain whether exogenous delivery of FGF19 might be therapeutically beneficial.

[Neurofibromatosis type I--the pediatric endocrinologist's point of view]

AIM OF THE STUDY

A retrospective analysis of endocrine disorders in patients with neurofibromatosis type I consulted in the Children's University Hospital of Krakow in the period 2007-2010.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The analysis included 60 patients (33 girls, and 27 boys) aged 1.2-32 years, mean 11.6 years. The patients were followed up by many health care professionals: neurologists (EEG), neurosurgeons (CT, MRI), ophthalmologists, psychologists, ENT specialists, anthropologists (the assessment of body height and weight), geneticists, endocrinologists and gynecologists (the assessment of puberty according to Tanner scale, diagnostics of short stature, precocious puberty), and cardiologists (echo-cardiography).

RESULTS

In the analyzed group of 60 patients, 46 were consulted by geneticists, 20 by endocrinologists, 19 by neurologists and cardiologists. The imaging of the central nervous system (CNS) was performed in 37 patients. Twenty-two patients presented with familial NF-I, 13 with sporadic NF-I, and in 25 patients, the family history was unavailable. Growth disorders were present in 27.7% of patients (13/47) that were referred to the anthropometric assessment. Short stature (height < or = (-) 2 SD) was recognized in 9/47 of children (19.1%). Tall stature (> (+) 2 SD) was recognized in 4/47 of patients (8.5%). All of the patients with tall stature presented with central precocious puberty (PD). Precocious puberty was also recognized in two children with normal stature. In all cases of PD, optic chiasm gliomas were recognized. Generally, organic CSN disorders were detected in 24 patients (63.2%). MRI revealed optic chiasm gliomas in 8 patients, 4 presented with gliomas of one or two optic nerves, 10 presented with hyperintensive areas on T2-weighted images, without enhancement after contrast injection, that may suggest the diagnosis of hamartoma of the CNS, and 2 with hydrocephaly.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The most common disorders of the somatic development revealed in NF-I patients are growth disorders: short stature and tall stature caused by central precocious puberty. 2. In view of the incidence of endocrine disorders in patients with NF-I, the authors suggest an endocrine consultation in each case of NF-I.

[Disorders of lipid metabolism in adolescents with simple obesity]

BACKGROUND

Obesity affects approximately 45 millions of children worldwide. Some of them present with secondary dyslipidemia that leads to premature atherosclerosis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

1) Assessment of the frequency and type of dyslipidemia in obese adolescents. 2) An attempt at defining risk factors of atherogenic lipid profile in obese adolescents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In 146 (84 girls/62 boys) obese (mean BMI SDS 4.95, 95% CI 4.62-5.29) adolescents (age 10-18, mean 14.7 years), the levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLc) and triglicerydes (TG) were measured. Atherogenic dyslipidemia was defined as a high TG level with a concomitant low HDLc level. Standard oral glucose tolerance test was performed with the assessment of fasting and after 120' post-load of 75 g of glucose and insulin levels; the insulin resistance index HOMA-IR was calculated.

RESULTS

The mean values of the lipid fractions were in normal ranges: TC 4.64 mmol/L (95% CI 4.48-4.8), LDLc 2.86 mmol/L (95% CI 2.73-2.99), TG 1.4 mmol/L (95% CI 1.3-1.5), and HDLc 1.16 (95% CI 1.1-1.2). However, in 50.69% of the patients (45.24% girls and 58.06% boys), elevated levels of TC, LDLc, and TG were observed respectively in 23.29%, 17.81% and 37.67%, and low HDLc in 15.07% of patients. A total of 10.96% of the patients presented with coexistence of a low HDLc and a high TG. In 26.7%, dyslipidemia was followed by arterial hypertension. There was a reverse correlation between a low HDLc value and BMI SDS [R (-) 0.22, p < 0.05] and not with TC, LDLc, and TG. The relative risk of abnormal lipid profile occurrence was higher in obese patients with insulin resistance (OR 1.72; 95% CI 0.8-3.4; p = 0.12), being significant only for boys (OR 3.67; 95% CI 1.1-12.1; p = 0.03). There was a reverse correlation between fasting insulin level, HOMA-IR and HDLc [R (-) 0.2; p < 0.05; R (-) 0.2; p < 0.05) respectively], as well as TG (R 0.26 ; p < 0.05; R 0.26; p < 0.05, respectively), and between post-load insulin level and TG (R 0.24; p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

1) Lipid disorders occur in about one-half of obese adolescents, of which 10% presents with atherogenic lipid profile. 2) One of the most important risk factors of atherogenic lipid profile occurrence is insulin resistance, especially in boys. The severity of the obesity (BMI-SDS) is of lesser importance.

[Long-term endocrine complications after brain tumor treatment--own experience]

BACKGROUND

Long-term endocrine complications affect approximately 40% of childhood cancer survivors.

THE AIM

The retrospective analysis of parameters of the endocrine system function up to 10 years after head radiotherapy (RT) and chemotherapy (CT) due to malignant solid tumor of the central nervous system.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The analysis included 30 patients (15 girls; 15 boys) followed in Endocrine Outpatient Department, University Children's Hospital of Krakow for 1-10 years (mean 5.8 years) after completion of cancer therapy.

RESULTS

There was no endocrinopathy in 11 patients (34%), but only five of them were followed for longer than 5 years. A single endocrine disorder was seen in patients (28%), two independent disorders in six (20%), three in three children (10%), and four in two (6.7%). The most common endocrine disorder was growth hormone deficiency (GHD) (13 patients, 46.6%). Primary and secondary hypothyroidism were observed in seven (23%) and two patients (6.7%), respectively, secondary adrenal insufficiency in two (6.7%), hypogonadotropic or hypergonadotropic hypogonadism in seven (23%) and two patients (6.7%), respectively. Obesity without any hormone deficiency was present in five patients (16.6%) patients, in one case, the condition was complicated by glucose intolerance, in four children, by a high level of triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Late endocrine complications after malignant brain tumor treatment affect 66% of patients followed for 1-10 years after completion of RT. That points to the necessity of long-term, regular followup of the patients after cancer treatment. 2. The most common endocrinopathy is GHD, followed by hypothyroidism, hypogonadism and adrenal insufficiency. 3. In patients after head RT and CT in childhood, there is noted secondary obesity, with complications typical for metabolic syndrome.

Suprasellar arachnoidal cyst as a cause of precocious puberty--report of three patients and literature overview

The authors present three boys--3 years old, 5.8 years old and 10.4 years old--who were diagnosed with isosexual precocious puberty (IPP) triggered by a rare developmental disorder of suprasellar arachnoid cyst (SAC) accompanied by corpus callosum and fornix dysgenesis as well as anterior commissura magna agenesis (patient 1) and empty sella (patients 2, 3). The reason for diagnostic management recommendation was a rapid progression of IPP signs over one year (patients 1, 2) or 6 months (patient 3) prior to hospitalization, these signs having been present but less intense since infancy (patient 1), 4th year of life (patient 2) and approximately 8 years of age (patient 3). Neurological signs (spastic paresis in patient 1, postural tremor in patient 2 and head bobbing and behavioral changes in patient 3), as well as slowly progressing increased head circumference were observed since neonatal period (patient 1), 1 year old (patient 2) and approximately 4 years old (patient 3). None of the patients manifested hypophyseal-hypothalamic axis dysfunction other than IPP prior to and after surgical management. Shunt implantation resulted in gradual resolution of neurological signs in all patients and in patient 3 also in partial normalization of serum testosterone levels and growth rate. Regression of IPP in patients 1 and 2 was achieved by administration of a long-acting GnRH analogue. Our observations are in accord with data reported by other investigators and confirm the often slow, insidious development of subsequent SAC signs, the type and intensity of which differ from patient to patient. We suggest that some of the neuroanatomical anomalies coexisting with SAC may have a common genesis, or they could under certain conditions be an additional trigger for IPP and possibly other hypothalamopituitary dysfunction.

[Thyroid peroxidase antibodies and thyroid diseases in children and adolescents with newly diagnosed type I diabetes]

The objective of the authors was to evaluate the prevalence of TPO Ab and thyroid diseases in children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. The examination included 153 patients (85/55.6% girls) from southeast Poland aged 11 months to do 17.4 years (mean age 9.5 +/- 3.9 years). Apart from clinical assessment, all children had determinations made of serum TPO Ab, FT4 and TSH, while thyroid ultra sound was performed in each patients with abnormal thyroid morphology and/or positive TPO Ab titter. Positive TPO Ab was detected in 45 patients (29.4%). In this group 26 had isolated serum TPO Ab elevation, 18 had Hashimoto's disease, 1 Graves's disease. Another 12 children (7.8%) were demonstrated to have euthyroid goiter. Thyroid abnormalities were thus seen in 37.2% children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. No association was demonstrated between the prevalence of thyroid abnormalities and sex. Children with subclinical stage of autoimmune thyreoiditis were significantly younger in comparison to patients with Hashimoto's disease (8.9 +/- 4.2 vs. 12.0 +/- 3.1 years) and had significantly lower serum TPO Ab and TSH levels (314.2 +/- 232.4 vs. 2076.8 +/- 1300.8 U/ml, 1.7 +/- 0.82 vs. 4.1 +/- 2.9 ulU/ml, respectively). Thyroid dysfunction was detected in 7 (4.6%) children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. In comparison to the entire group with positive serum TPO Ab titer in these 7 children the percentage of patients with thyroid dysfunction was significantly higher (15.5%). Six patients were hypothyroid and 1 had hyperthyreosis. The present results justify the need for comprehensive screening for thyroid disorders in all children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes.

[Thyroid peroxidase antibodies and thyroid diseases in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus from Southeast Poland]

The authors evaluated the prevalence of TPO Ab and thyroid disorders in 219 children and adolescents (119/54% girls) with type 1 diabetes from southeast Poland aged 3.2-22.3 years (mean age-13.7 +/- 3.9 years). Their age upon diagnosis ranged from 1.6 to 17.2 years (mean age--8.1 +/- 3.6 years), while diabetes duration was between 1 and 18.7 years (mean, 6.4 +/- 3.7 years). In addition to clinical assessment of all patients, determinations were made of serum TPO Ab, FT4 and TSH; thyroid ultrasound was performed in each patient with abnormal thyroid morphology and/or positive TPO Ab titer. Positive TPO Ab titer was demonstrated in 76 (34.7%) patients with type 1 diabetes; in this group 49 showed no other overt thyroid pathological symptoms. Hashimoto's disease was detected in 26 children, Graves's disease in 1 girl. Twenty children (9.1%) with negative TPO Ab titter were shown to have euthyrotic goiter. Thus, thyroid abnormalities were demonstrated in 43.8% of the patients and were seen twice as often in girls than in boys (+ n = 69 > n = 27). Thyroid dysfunction was detected in 11 (5.05%) patients. These 11 patients with thyroid dysfunction constituted 14.5% of the entire group of children with both type 1 diabetes and positive TPO Ab titer (n = 76). Ten patients were hypothyroid (including 8 with previously undiagnosed disease) and 1 girls had hyperthyroidism. The present results indicate that in each child with type 1 diabetes--apart from diabetes control--thyreologic assessment should be done, and the frequency and type of examinations should depend on the comprehensive preliminary evaluation.