Psychoactive substance consumption after the Fundão dam mine tailing disaster in Minas Gerais State, Brazil

Disasters cause changes in morbidity, mortality, and medicine use. Brazil is one of the main producers of mineral ores at great environmental cost. Mine tailings are stored in dams and ruptures have led to major disasters. We investigated the consumption of psychoactive medicines in the municipalities affected by the Fundão dam disaster in Minas Gerais State. An ecological study was carried out on drug consumption, estimated using public purchases in Minas Gerais and dispensing data from private retail pharmacies. Consumption (in number of defined daily doses/100,000 inhabitants per day) was analyzed descriptively in eight municipalities, stratified according to consumption level during a 25-month period. Six comparisons of mean consumption values for both data sets were done for pre- and post-disaster periods. The means of medicine consumption before and after the event were plotted and linear trends were added. Public purchase data evinced high consumption levels. Only pharmaceutical retail showed significant differences between the strata in the pre-disaster versus two post-disaster periods. Smaller municipalities showed an increase in consumption 15 months after the disaster. Clonazepam led the way in pharmaceutical retail consumption, followed by fluoxetine. Medicines showed an upward trend after the disaster. The high public provision may have stifled significant consumption patterns of psychoactive drugs; however, peak consumption were observed in private retail, suggesting a modification in use patterns after the disaster. The decrease in consumption immediately after the event was probably related to lower care-seeking behavior on the part of the population, and significant peaks after the disaster may reflect economic consequences of it.

The incorporation of the 3HP regimen for tuberculosis preventive treatment in the Brazilian health system: a secondary-database nationwide analysis

Introduction

The recommendation of rifampin-based shorter - and safer - regimens for tuberculosis preventive treatment (TPT) is progressively replacing monotherapy with isoniazid by different countries. The Brazilian Ministry of Health (MoH) approved the incorporation of the Rifapentine + isoniazid regimen (3HP) at the end of 2020, with free distribution in the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) started from the last quarter of 2021. The objectives were to describe the implementation of the IL-TB System (Information System of TPT Notification) and uptake of Rifapentine + isoniazid (3HP) and Isoniazid (6H or 9H) in Brazil.

Methods

A quantitative observational and descriptive was performed using the IL-TB National System as the main data source, from January 2018 to December 2022.

Results and discussion

There was a steady increase of the number of TPT prescription quarterly throughout the period, which reflects the implementation of the system itself and the progressive adherence of the health system to the non-compulsory notification of new TPT. The substitution of isoniazid (6H or 9H) by 3HP is progressing. The 3HP regimen represented less than 4% of the total administered by the end of 2021, reaching around 30% in the second half of 2022 and 40% in the last quarters of 2022. The study points not only to the need to expand TPT in the country, but also to accelerate 3HP uptake and to encourage the municipalities to notify to the IL-TB system, since there is still a high level of underreporting.

Biosimilars approvals by thirteen regulatory authorities: A cross-national comparison

Biosimilars are biological medicines highly similar to a previously licensed reference product and their licensing is expected to improve access to biological therapies. This study aims to present an overview of biosimilars approval by thirteen regulatory authorities (RA). The study is a cross-national comparison of regulatory decisions involving biosimilars in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Canada, Colombia, Europe, Hungary, Guatemala, Italy, Mexico, Peru and United States. We examined publicly available documents containing information regarding the approval of biosimilars and investigated the publication of public assessment reports for registration applications, guidelines for biosimilars licensing, and products approved. Data extraction was conducted by a network of researchers and regulatory experts. All the RA had issued guidance documents establishing the requirements for the licensing of biosimilars. However, only three RA had published public assessment reports for registration applications. In total, the investigated jurisdictions had from 19 to 78 biosimilars approved, most of them licensed from 2018 to 2020. In spite of the advance in the number of products in recent years, some challenges still persist. Limited access to information regarding the assessment of biosimilars by RA can affect confidence, which may ultimately impact adoption of these products in practice.

[Data processing of the Brazilian National System of Controlled Product Management for drug utilization research with antimicrobials]

The Brazilian National System of Controlled Product Management (SNGPC) stores data on the dispensing of manufactured and compounded drugs and pharmaceutical inputs, whether controlled and antimicrobial, based on the records of private pharmacies and drugstores. This study assessed the quality of SNGPC data from the dispensing records of manufactured antibiotics, aiming to propose their use in drug utilization researchs (DURs), with a descriptive and retrospective design, analyzing the raw dataset of the SNGPC from January 2014 to December 2020. A total of 475,805,207 drug-dispensing records were collected. On average, antibiotics corresponded to 54.5% of the total records. The quality dimension "unreported" was systematically identified in the variables "active ingredient", "sex", "age" and "ICD-10". The amount of vials/bottles and packages ranged from one to 536 units and the amount of pharmaceutical inputs dispensed, from one to 7,500 units. Results show that 25% of the records exceed an individual therapy and the SNGPC has no critical mechanism to avoid dispensations outside the therapeutic standard for the class. Despite vulnerabilities due to data quality, which can be overcome, the SNGPC allows for the construction of different analytical plans, involving time and other aggregations, in the analysis of community use of antimicrobials and controlled drugs, which makes it a powerful source of data for DUR.

First use of antineoplastic agents in women with breast cancer in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Context: Breast cancer is the most common cancer, except for non-melanoma skin cancer, among women in Brazil and worldwide. Breast cancer treatment involves surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, which is used in 70% of patients. This study analyzes the utilization of antineoplastic agents among women undergoing their first round of chemotherapy in Brazil's public health system (SUS) in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Methods: Data from the SUS Outpatient Information System's authorizations for high-complexity outpatient procedures (APACs) billed between January 2013 and December 2019 were extracted, and three datasets were created: all type 1 and type 2 APACs (including all chemotherapy procedures performed); all type 1 APACs; and first type 1 APACs (containing data only for the first round of breast cancer chemotherapy). Names of antineoplastic agents were standardized to enable the subsequent classification of therapy regimens, mitigating limitations related to data quality. Absolute and relative frequencies were used to describe sociodemographic, clinical and treatment characteristics, therapy regimen and supportive drugs. Results: We analyzed 23,232 records of women undergoing their first round of chemotherapy. There was a progressive increase in the number of procedures over time. Women were predominantly white, lived in the capital and close to the treatment center. Most had stage 3 cancer at diagnosis (50.51%) and a significant proportion had regional lymph node invasion (37.9%). The most commonly used chemotherapy regimens were TAC (docetaxel, doxorubicine, cyclophosphamide) (21.05%) and and cyclophosphamide (17.71%), followed by tamoxifen (15.65%) and anastrozole (12.94%). Supportive drugs were prescribed to 386 women and zoledronic acid was predominant (59.58%). Conclusion: The findings point to important bottlenecks and possible inequities in access to treatment and medicine utilization for breast cancer patients in Brazil. Efforts to improve breast cancer treatment and prevention should not only focus on interventions at the individual level but address the disease as a public health problem. The study focused on women undergoing their first round of treatment, providing valuable insight into patient and treatment characteristics to inform policy decisions.

Potential interactions between antineoplastic agents and medicines used to treat Covid-19

INTRODUCTION

Cancer patients with Covid-19 are exposed to treatment combinations that can potentially result in interactions that adversely affect patient outcomes. This study aimed to identify potential drug-drug interactions between antineoplastic agents and medicines used to treat Covid-19.

METHODS

We conducted a search for potential interactions between 201 antineoplastic agents and 26 medicines used to treat Covid-19 on the Lexicomp^® and Micromedex^® databases. The following data were extracted: interaction severity ("major" and "contraindicated") and interaction effects (pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic). We also sought to identify the therapeutic indication of the antineoplastic drugs involved in the potential drug-drug interactions.

RESULTS

A total of 388 "major" or "contraindicated" drug-drug interactions were detected. Eight drugs or combinations (baricitinib, lopinavir/ritonavir, atazanavir, darunavir, azithromycin, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, and sirolimus) accounted for 91.5% of these interactions. The class of antineoplastic agents with the greatest potential for interaction was tyrosine kinase inhibitors (accounting for 46.4% of all interactions). The findings show that atazanavir, baricitinib, and lopinavir/ritonavir can affect the treatment of all common types of cancer. The most common pharmacokinetic effect of the potential drug-drug interactions was increased plasma concentration of the antineoplastic medicine (39.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Covid-19 is a recent disease and pharmacological interventions are undergoing constant modification. This study identified a considerable number of potential drug-drug interactions. In view of the vulnerability of patients with cancer, it is vital that health professionals carefully assess the risks and benefits of drug combinations.

Consumption of antidepressants and economic austerity in Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To describe consumption of antidepressants in Brazil through dispensing data from pharmacy retail outlets, in between 2011 and 2017, and explore the relationship between consumption patterns and changing economic context during this period.

METHODS

A time-series analysis of dispensing data from pharmacy retail outlets from the Brazilian Controlled Products Management System was carried out considering ten commonly used antidepressants. DDDs/1000 inhabitants/year for each drug was calculated for each quarter and time-series graphs were constructed to analyze the volumes of drugs purchased. Trends were analyzed using Prais-Winsten regression. The relationship between economic context and consumption was assessed using the following indicators: annual percent change in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), public debt (% of GDP), and annual net savings (in millions of Brazilian reais -BRL-).

RESULTS

overall consumption of antidepressants from pharmacy retail outlets increased over the study period despite a sharp fall of -3,55% in annual percent change in GDP, negative net annual savings of -53.568 BRL, and an increase in public debt exceeding 32% of the GDP during the economic crisis of 2015.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of antidepressants from pharmacy retail outlets increased even within a context of economic crisis, which may be a reflection of the disease burden in Brazil. Health budget cuts due to the economic crisis may be directing users to out-of-pocket expenses, deepening social inequalities. Segmented trend analysis is a workable approach for developing hypotheses about the possible influence of the economic context on medication consumption patterns.

Public procurement of antineoplastic agents used for treating breast cancer in Brazil between 2013 and 2019

Background

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in Brazil and the country’s public health care system is the main care provider. Timely treatment can increase the chance of cure, prevent metastasis and improve quality of life. Effective public procurement of antineoplastic agents can therefore improve access to drug therapy. This study investigates patterns in the procurement of selected antineoplastic agents used for treating breast cancer by public bodies and avoidable expenditure on these drugs between January 2013 and December 2019.

Methods

We selected antineoplastic agents used for adjuvant or preoperative chemotherapy listed in the 2018 Breast Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines and included in category L of the WHO Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical classification system. We analyzed regular purchases of antineoplastic agents registered in the Integrated General Services Administration System (SIASG), considering purchased quantity, unit price, date of purchase and procuring entity. Prices were inflation-adjusted to July 2019 based on the National Consumer Price Index.

Results

A total of 10 antineoplastic agents were selected. Trastuzumab and tamoxifen accounted for the largest share of total spending and largest volume of purchases, respectively. The Ministry of Education was the largest purchaser in volume terms of all the drugs studied, except trastuzumab 440 mg, where the category “Other Institutions” accounted for most purchases, and vinorelbine 20 mg, where the Ministry of Health made most purchases. The category “Other Institutions” accounted for the largest share of total spending. Total avoidable expenditure was R$99,130,645. Prices paid for medicines and avoidable expenditure were highest in the Ministry of Defense.

Conclusions

The differences observed in the performance of different categories of buyers as to amounts purchased and prices practiced for antineoplastic agents could be reduced by employing strategies to expand the centralization of purchases, resulting in expanded access to breast cancer medicines in the public sector.

Data Sources for Drug Utilization Research in Brazil-DUR-BRA Study

Background: In Brazil, studies that map electronic healthcare databases in order to assess their suitability for use in pharmacoepidemiologic research are lacking. We aimed to identify, catalogue, and characterize Brazilian data sources for Drug Utilization Research (DUR).

Methods: The present study is part of the project entitled, “Publicly Available Data Sources for Drug Utilization Research in Latin American (LatAm) Countries.” A network of Brazilian health experts was assembled to map secondary administrative data from healthcare organizations that might provide information related to medication use. A multi-phase approach including internet search of institutional government websites, traditional bibliographic databases, and experts’ input was used for mapping the data sources. The reviewers searched, screened and selected the data sources independently; disagreements were resolved by consensus. Data sources were grouped into the following categories: 1) automated databases; 2) Electronic Medical Records (EMR); 3) national surveys or datasets; 4) adverse event reporting systems; and 5) others. Each data source was characterized by accessibility, geographic granularity, setting, type of data (aggregate or individual-level), and years of coverage. We also searched for publications related to each data source.

Results: A total of 62 data sources were identified and screened; 38 met the eligibility criteria for inclusion and were fully characterized. We grouped 23 (60%) as automated databases, four (11%) as adverse event reporting systems, four (11%) as EMRs, three (8%) as national surveys or datasets, and four (11%) as other types. Eighteen (47%) were classified as publicly and conveniently accessible online; providing information at national level. Most of them offered more than 5 years of comprehensive data coverage, and presented data at both the individual and aggregated levels. No information about population coverage was found. Drug coding is not uniform; each data source has its own coding system, depending on the purpose of the data. At least one scientific publication was found for each publicly available data source.

Conclusions: There are several types of data sources for DUR in Brazil, but a uniform system for drug classification and data quality evaluation does not exist. The extent of population covered by year is unknown. Our comprehensive and structured inventory reveals a need for full characterization of these data sources.

Estratégias adotadas para a garantia dos direitos da pessoa com câncer no âmbito Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS)

Resumo Este estudo, fundamentado na Teoria da Estruturação de Giddens, buscou analisar as estratégias adotadas para garantir os direitos das pessoas com câncer em cinco municípios brasileiros, a partir da experiência de gestores e profissionais de saúde no contexto do Sistema Único de Saúde. Foi conduzido um estudo de casos múltiplos. A unidade de análise foi o município e a subunidade foi a unidade habilitada de atenção oncológica. Foi realizada a análise de conduta estratégica de dez gestores e 15 profissionais de saúde, a partir de entrevistas. Os resultados foram sistematizados em três dimensões: assistencial, judicial e social. Destacaram-se: a necessidade de expansão e organização da rede assistencial diagnóstica e terapêutica; a preocupação com o grande número de demandas judiciais, tanto pela sustentabilidade econômica do sistema de saúde, quanto pela promoção de iniquidades; a pouca resolutividade dos benefícios sociais, uma vez que não atendem a todos aqueles que necessitam. A percepção é de que as medidas adotadas são insuficientes para garantir os direitos da pessoa com câncer no sistema de saúde brasileiro.

Data Sources for Drug Utilization Research in Latin American countries - a cross-national study: DASDUR-LATAM Study

PURPOSE

Drug utilization research (DUR) contributes to inform policymaking and to strengthen health systems. The availability of data sources is the first step for conducting DUR. However, documents that systematize these data sources in Latin American (LatAm) countries are not known. We compiled the potential data sources for DUR in the LatAm region.

METHODS

A network of DUR experts from nine LatAm countries was assembled and experts conducted: (i) a website search of the government, academic, and private health institutions; (ii) screening of eligible data sources, and (iii) liaising with national experts in pharmacoepidemiology (via an on-line survey). The data sources were characterized by accessibility, geographic granularity, setting, sector of the data, sources and type of the data. Descriptive analyses were performed.

RESULTS

We identified 125 data sources for DUR in nine LatAm countries. Thirty-eight (30%) of them were publicly and conveniently available; 89 (71%) were accessible with limitations, and 18 (14%) were not accessible or lacked clear rules for data access. From the 125 data sources, 76 (61%) were from the public sector only; 46 (37%) were from pharmacy records; 43 (34%) came from ambulatory settings and; 85 (68%) gave access to individual patient-level data.

CONCLUSIONS

Although multiple sources for DUR are available in LatAm countries, the accessibility is a major challenge. The procedures for accessing DUR data should be transparent, feasible, affordable and protocol-driven. This inventory could permit a comparison of drug utilization between countries identifying potential medication-related problems that need further exploration.

COVID-19 and the medicines regulation challenges in times of pandemic

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has brought challenges related to prevention, protection and care. Coping strategies, such as social distancing, individual protection for the population and workers, increase in the number of intensive care beds, provision of human resources and equipment are necessary actions. However, there are yet no specific effective and safe medicines that justify their use. The challenge imposed on the regulatory framework for medicines is aimed at providing timely access to medicines capable of modifying the course of the disease and leading to better treatment outcomes, with health safety. Regulatory agencies must protect the health by assessing the actual benefits and harms of the medicines under these specific conditions. The article discusses the main regulatory challenges and response of regulatory agencies to the demands imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, especially, drug development strategies and regulatory strategies related to off-label use. Emergency drug use authorization and alternatives for extended/compassionate use are addressed, as well as clinical trials, safety assessment and monitoring of adverse events.

Knowledge and risk perception of vulnerable women on Zika virus infection at primary health care level in Brazil

Vulnerable low-income groups were most affected by Zika virus (ZIKV)-related neurologic syndrome during the 2014-2016 outbreak in Brazil. Major ZIKV infection response took place in Primary Health Care (PHC), including prevention strategies and risk communication. We aimed to detect knowledge and beliefs, as well as knowledge gaps among vulnerable women at the PHC level. A cross-sectional study was carried out in two low-income urban community settings: a small municipality with few ZIKV infection cases and a large municipality hard-hit by the epidemic. An open-ended data collection instrument centred on ZIKV infection knowledge, sources of information, possible causes, symptoms, risk perception, consequences for pregnant women and PHC point-of-care communication was developed. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and content coded for thematic analysis. Most of the seventy-nine respondents had some knowledge of the disease, acknowledging the vector as the source of infection and associating microcephaly with the disease, but distanced themselves from possible ZIKV infection and related risk. PHC services in both communities did not adequately communicate risk for women and children. In an uncertain future scenario as to disease re-emergence, awareness may be diminished and acquired knowledge lost, configuring a public health challenge that must be overcome.

Dynamics of patents, orphan drug designation, licensing, and revenues from drugs for rare diseases: The market expansion of eculizumab

BACKGROUND

This study examines the dynamics of the eculizumab patenting, orphan designation, and marketing authorization process in different countries and regulatory systems and analyzes drug revenues since its first marketing authorization.

METHODS

A retrospective case study was conducted. Multiple information sources were used to: determine the status of eculizumab patents; examine the designation of orphan drug status by US, European, Japanese, and Brazilian regulatory authorities to determine registration status and approved clinical indications; estimate the prevalence of associated clinical conditions; investigate the history of the drug manufacturer, Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc., and its financialized business model; and examine global eculizumab sales revenues since its first marketing authorization.

RESULTS

Our search yielded 32 patent families divided into 98 applications. The first patent granted was filed in 1995 by Alexion Pharmaceuticals, Inc. in the US. Eculizumab has always been as an orphan drug, except in the Brazilian regulatory agency. All clinical indications approved thus far refer to rare diseases (e.g., paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria syndrome, atypical hemolytic-uremic syndrome, refractory and generalized myasthenia gravis, and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder). Alexion's revenues amounted to more than US$25 billion between 2007 and 2019, showing a growing trend. Eculizumab led sales from the beginning, being the only product in the company's portfolio until 2015. In 2019, the drug accounted for 79.1% of all revenues.

DISCUSSION

Our findings show that a strategy focused on obtaining orphan drug designation, expanding therapeutic indications and the geographic range of marketing approvals, extending monopoly periods, and prioritizing public procurement niches has enhanced revenues and helped the company achieve leadership in a highly specific and profitable market.

[Profile of antineoplastic medication among indigenous people treated in the Brazilian Unified National Health System]

Brazil has an estimated 900,000 indigenous people (0.4% of the country's population), belonging to more than 300 different ethnic groups. However, information is scarce on cancer epidemiology and the antineoplastic drugs used in treatment of these individuals. The study's objectives are to identify the antineoplastic drugs used and to describe the profile of use of these drugs in the indigenous population treated in Brazil, as well as to describe the patients' epidemiological profile. An ecological study was performed involving outpatient chemotherapy care from January 2014 to December 2018 throughout Brazil. The data source was the Outpatient Information System of the Brazilian Health Informatics Department, considering only Authorizations for High-Complexity Chemotherapy Procedures. We identified 2,425 authorizations for chemotherapy procedures for treatment of indigenous patients. Of these, 2,292 authorizations for a total of 210 individuals were analyzed. We found an increase in the number of authorizations and of indigenous persons receiving chemotherapy over the period, with a higher concentration of individuals living in and receiving treatment in the South of Brazil, plus a wide diversity in the types of diagnosed tumors (n = 63) and of treatment regimen used during the treatment (n = 107). The current study provided a new overview of the epidemiological profile of indigenous patients receiving chemotherapy in the Brazilian Unified National Health System. The findings help fill a current knowledge gap on indigenous people's health in Brazil.

An ontology of Pharmaceutical Services in the pages of Journal Ciência & Saúde Coletiva

Pharmaceutical Services (PS) is a growing field which has established itself over the last 25 years in Brazil through scientific publications. This work investigates the evolution of the field in the Brazilian periodical Journal Ciência & Saúde Coletiva. We conducted a scoping review of relevant literature produced in four separate periods (1996-2003, 2004-2010, 2011-2015, and 2016-2019). A search for articles that contained one or more of the pre-established key words in the title was performed by separate pairs of reviewers. The search resulted in 307 articles, 260 of which were included. The findings show that the number of publications increased steadily over the study period. The papers were predominantly open-topic and original articles and written in Portuguese. Most of the lead authors were from the South and Southeastern regions of Brazil and from public universities and Fiocruz. The predominant primary theme was medicine utilization (161 articles), followed by management (56), and tangential aspects of the PM cycle (43). An ontology of PS was created based on the classification of the articles. The findings show that the field of PS encompasses public policy and management and frontline activities involved in the delivery of health care to the population. It is hoped that the diverse range of interrelations in the field of PS will be increasingly addressed in future publications.

Public financing of human insulins in Brazil: 2009-2017

BACKGROUND

From 2006 to 2017, the Brazilian federal government provided free of charge traditional insulins for diabetes treatment. This involved public tendering by the Department of Health Logistics of the Ministry of Health (DLOG-MOH) and the reimbursement after direct contracting for supply with commercial private retailers (Brazilian Popular Pharmacy Program - PFPB).

OBJECTIVE

We aim to describe the budget of the Brazilian federal government committed to for the acquisition of insulin, as well as corresponding prices and treatment availability from 2009 to 2017.

METHODS

Insulin volume and expenditure data were obtained in official administrative databases and in the Electronic System of the Information Service to Citizens. Data were analyzed according to the total provision by the federal government, DLOG-MOH and PFPB. Moreover, data were presented according to insulin type. Volumes were calculated in number of defined daily doses (DDD)/1,000 inhabitants/day.

RESULTS

Budgetary commitments due to insulin over nine years amounted to U$1,027 billion in 2017, with an approximate average of U$114.1 million per year. DLOG-MOH was the main insulin provider, despite the increase in PFPB provision along period. DLOG-MOH and PFBP together provided an average of 6.08 DDD/1000 inhabitants/day for nine years. Average prices in PFPB were higher than those in the DLOG series, with a downward trend over the years, narrowing to 2.7 times in 2017, when compared to 2009.

CONCLUSIONS

Brazil evidenced a moderately sustainable and effective, albeit imperfect, policy for public provision of traditional insulins in the period preceding mandatory free supply of insulin analogues. Future studies must address treatment availability and financial sustainability in the new scenario.

Proposta de análise integrada de emergências em saúde pública por arboviroses: o caso do Zika vírus no Brasil

RESUMO A mudança no padrão de ocorrência da microcefalia associada à infecção pelo Zika Vírus em gestantes no Brasil resultou na decretação de emergência em saúde pública de importância nacional e internacional. Esforços coordenados e multisetoriais foram demandados, mas nem sempre houve respostas efetivas ou preparação das populações afetadas. A epidemia de Zika repercutiu nas políticas públicas, incluindo a de saúde, seja na investigação científica, seja na proposição de medidas de controle, diagnóstico, prevenção e tratamento. Objetivou-se apresentar proposta de análise integrada para abordagem de futuras emergências sanitárias com foco nas arboviroses. Partindo da experiência brasileira da epidemia e literatura relacionada, articularam-se quatro dimensões: vulnerabilidades e risco; condições e impactos socioeconômicos na população; desenvolvimento e emprego de tecnologias e pesquisas; e resposta e reprogramação do sistema de saúde. Pretende-se viabilizar loci específicos de investigação, para mensuração de possíveis desfechos e geração de novas evidências sobre os efeitos da epidemia nos sistemas de saúde. O conhecimento científico e suas lacunas são considerados os principais elementos integradores dessas dimensões analíticas, de forma a contribuir com resposta mais oportuna e efetiva em futuras emergências. Além do conhecimento adquirido, faz-se necessário agregar capacidade de enfrentar futuras emergências relacionadas com as epidemias de arboviroses.

Proposal for integrated analysis of public health emergencies involving arboviruses: the case of the Zika virus in Brazil

RESUMO A mudança no padrão de ocorrência da microcefalia associada à infecção pelo Zika Vírus em gestantes no Brasil resultou na decretação de emergência em saúde pública de importância nacional e internacional. Esforços coordenados e multisetoriais foram demandados, mas nem sempre houve respostas efetivas ou preparação das populações afetadas. A epidemia de Zika repercutiu nas políticas públicas, incluindo a de saúde, seja na investigação científica, seja na proposição de medidas de controle, diagnóstico, prevenção e tratamento. Objetivou-se apresentar proposta de análise integrada para abordagem de futuras emergências sanitárias com foco nas arboviroses. Partindo da experiência brasileira da epidemia e literatura relacionada, articularam-se quatro dimensões: vulnerabilidades e risco; condições e impactos socioeconômicos na população; desenvolvimento e emprego de tecnologias e pesquisas; e resposta e reprogramação do sistema de saúde. Pretende-se viabilizar loci específicos de investigação, para mensuração de possíveis desfechos e geração de novas evidências sobre os efeitos da epidemia nos sistemas de saúde. O conhecimento científico e suas lacunas são considerados os principais elementos integradores dessas dimensões analíticas, de forma a contribuir com resposta mais oportuna e efetiva em futuras emergências. Além do conhecimento adquirido, faz-se necessário agregar capacidade de enfrentar futuras emergências relacionadas com as epidemias de arboviroses.

Demographics, deaths and severity indicators in hospitalizations due to drug poisoning among children under age five in Brazil

INTRODUCTION

In Brazil, drugs are the main causative agents of poisonings, and children under age five are the group with the highest number of cases. The objective of the present study was to describe hospitalizations due to drug poisoning in this population regarding demographics, deaths and worsening indicators in hospitalizations.

METHODS

The frequency of hospitalizations for drug poisoning between 2003 and 2012 was verified using data from the Hospital Information System. The study variables were year, gender, age, place of residence and hospitalization, patient follow-up, main diagnosis, secondary diagnosis, nature of the health establishment and amount related to Intensive Care Unit expenses.

RESULTS

There were 17,725 hospitalizations due to drug poisoning in children under five, predominantly two-year-old male children. The hospitalizations outside the city of residence occurred in 25% of the cases, with predominance in the Northeastern region. The proportion of deaths in hospitalizations was 0.4%, with a higher number of deaths in the Southeastern region.

CONCLUSION

Despite the decrease in the number of hospitalizations in the period, regional disparities remained, which could be attenuated with the provision of specialized attention to drug poisonings in municipalities, expanding the access to a more complex care.

The case of eculizumab: litigation and purchases by the Brazilian Ministry of Health

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the purchases of eculizumab, a high-cost monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of rare diseases by Brazilian federal agencies, in terms of purchased quantities, expenditures, and prices.

METHODS

Eculizumab purchases made between March 2007 and December 2018 were analyzed, using secondary data extracted from the Federal Government Purchasing System (SIASG in Portuguese). The following aspects were assessed: number of purchases, purchased quantities, number of daily doses defined per 1,000 inhabitants per year, annual expenditures, and prices. The prices were adjusted by the National Broad Consumer Price Index for December 2018. Linear regression was used for trend analysis.

RESULTS

All acquisitions by federal agencies were made by the Brazilian Ministry of Health. The purchases began in 2009 with tender waiver to comply with legal demand. There was an increasing trend in the number of purchases and quantities acquired over time. Two hundred and eighty-three purchases were made, totaling 116,792 units purchased, 28.2% of them in 2018. The adjusted total expenses summed more than R$ 2.44 billion. After market approval by the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency, the weighted average price fell approximately 35%, to values under the Medicines Market Chamber of Regulation established prices.

CONCLUSION

Eculizumab represented extremely significant expenditures for the Brazilian Ministry of Health during the period. All purchases were made to meet demands from lawsuits, outside the competitive environment. The market approval of eculizumab promoted an important price reduction. This study indicates the relevance of licensing and the need for permanent monitoring and auditing of drug purchases to meet legal demands.

Cancer care in Brazil: structure and geographical distribution

Background

The organisation and systematisation of health actions and services are essential to ensure patient safety and the effectiveness and efficiency of cancer care. The objective of this study was to analyse the structure of cancer care envisaged in Brazilian norms, describe the types of accreditations of cancer services and their geographic distribution, and determine the planning and evaluation parameters used to qualify the health units that provide cancer care in Brazil.

Methods

This observational study identified the current organisation of cancer care and other health services that are accredited by Brazil’s national health system (SUS) for cancer treatment as of February 2017. The following information was collected from the current norms and the National Registry of Health Establishments: geographic location, type of accreditation, type of care, and hospital classification according to annual data of the number of cancer surgeries. The adequacy of the number of licensed units relative to population size was assessed. The analysis considered the facilitative or restrictive nature of policies based on the available rules and resources.

Results

The analysis of the norms indicated that these documents serve as structuring rules and resources for developing and implementing cancer care policies in Brazil. A total of 299 high-complexity oncology services were identified in facilities located in 173 (3.1%) municipalities. In some states, there were no authorised services in radiotherapy, paediatric oncology and/or haematology-oncology. There was a significant deficit in accredited oncology services.

Conclusions

The parameters that have been used to assess the need for accredited cancer services in Brazil are widely questioned because the best basis of calculation is the incidence of cancer or disease burden rather than population size. The results indicate that the availability of cancer services is insufficient and the organisation of the cancer care network needs to be improved in Brazil.

Falhas na gestão da Assistência Farmacêutica para Medicamentos Judicializados, em 16 municípios da região Sudeste brasileira

RESUMO Desde a década de 1990, as solicitações de medicamentos por via judicial vêm se intensificando. Vários estudos têm traçado o panorama destas demandas. Buscou-se descrever a existência de organização própria da gestão da Assistência Farmacêutica (AF) Municipal para o atendimento de medicamentos demandados judicialmente. Um conjunto de 16 municípios incluiu 4 de cada estado da região Sudeste brasileira. Para a descrição do perfil da gestão da AF, foi estruturada uma matriz de indicadores que contemplou suas dimensões de recursos humanos, financeiros e suas atividades. Em nove municípios, a gestão dos medicamentos solicitados por via judicial coube ao gestor local da AF. Os indicadores com os piores desempenhos em todas as respostas foram aqueles que versaram sobre as despesas com Medicamentos Judicializados. Somente seis gestores informaram que realizavam análise técnica das prescrições e contato regular com o judiciário. Em sete municípios, os gestores não souberam especificar a modalidade de aquisição dos medicamentos demandados. A gestão municipal tem papel preponderante sobre a gestão da AF e precisa ser revista, havendo a necessidade de amplo questionamento a respeito do seu papel e de eventuais mudanças pelas quais possa passar.

[The incorporation of nusinersen by the Brazilian Unified National Health System: critical thoughts on the institutionalization of health technology assessment in Brazil]

In April 2019, a ruling was signed for the incorporation of the drug nusinersen by the Brazilian Unified National Health System (SUS). Nusinersen is the most expensive drug ever incorporated by the SUS and is used to treat type I 5q spinal muscular atrophy. The incorporation has been described as a milestone in decision-making on new technologies in the SUS, enabled through a risk-sharing agreement. The article discusses the process involved in the incorporation of nusinersen, highlighting the context, timing, and technical issues, in addition to possible consequences for the institutionalization of health technology assessment (HTA) in the SUS. The study used an exploratory method, reviewing public information produced by the Commission for Incorporation of Technologies in the SUS (CONITEC) and searches in government databanks on prices and purchases. A timeline was produced, describing the key points in the process of incorporation. There were two formal requests for the drug's incorporation. The first was submitted by the Division of Science, Technology, and Strategic Inputs (SCTIE) of the Brazilian Ministry of Health and was turned down unanimously in November 2018. This was followed by a petition by the head of the SCTIE to the Attorney General's Office (AGU) to overrule the recommendation by the CONITEC plenary. The AGU recommended a new submission, made by the drug's manufacturing company, which was approved unanimously in March 2019. The was no addition of new evidence or a price reduction to justify the change of decision. No elements were identified in the risk-sharing agreement. This suggests problems of transparency and accountability, as well as risks in the process of institutionalization of HTA that had been underway in the SUS.

Factors influencing pharmaceutical pricing - a scoping review of academic literature in health science

Introduction

Pharmaceutical pricing has only recently gained space in mainstream health science literature.

Objectives

Bibliometric and content description of health science academic literature and ad hoc analysis of grey literature on factors influencing pharmaceutical pricing on databases commonly accessed by healthcare professionals.

Methods

Scoping study with no time limits performed in Medline, Scopus and Scielo, and relevant sites and databases for grey literature, using search terms with database-appropriate keywords.

Results

Two hundred four articles were published in 103 peer-reviewed journals between 1981 and 2016 (last search year). In grey literature 78 documents were retrieved in the final selection. Five key thematic clusters for analysing pharmaceutical pricing emerged: market dynamics, segmented into (i) supply-related, (ii) consumer-related and (iii) product-related; (iv) trading strategies, either buyer’s or seller’s and (v) regulatory approach. In peer-reviewed literature there is an overall dominance of themes referring to trading strategies and regulatory approaches and a wide thematic cluster scope. Over half of this literature was produced after the year 2010. International agency technical papers make up the most significant contributions of grey literature, with a clear focus on regulatory approaches to pricing and wider consideration of emerging countries. Research lags in the literature on factors affecting pharmaceutical pricing include impacts of financing schemes, market liberalization, internet trading and biosimilars on prices, with insufficient discussion identified for the effects of discounts/rebates, profits and price transparency.

Conclusions

Interest in pharmaceutical pricing literature is increasing. Robust evidence-producing study designs for pricing interventions will be a welcome development.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40545-019-0183-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Origin-destination flows in chemotherapy for breast cancer in Brazil: implications for pharmaceutical services

Abstract This study maps and analyzes patient flows for breast cancer chemotherapy in order to identify the potential implications for organization of pharmaceutical services in the cancer care network. An ecological study design sought to correlate the place of residence with place of care for breast cancer patients. All chemotherapy procedures financed by Brazil’s Unified Health System (SUS) and performed from January to December 2013 were included. Flows were mapped using TerraView® software. A total of 1 347 803 outpatient chemotherapy procedures were delivered by 243 cancer care units located in 156 municipalities. Seventeen cities concentrated approximately 50.0 % of the procedures. A total of 8 538 origin-destination flows were generated and 49.2% of procedures were performed in services located outside the municipality in which the patient resided. Context challenges, related to inequality of access to chemotherapy and hindrances in planning and management of pharmaceutical services, were discussed.

Immunosuppressants in Brazil: underlying drivers of spending trends, 2010-2015

BACKGROUND

Immunosuppressants are recommended for treatment of autoimmune diseases, and in transplant therapy. The high cost of these drugs has been causing an important impact on global pharmaceutical spending.

OBJECTIVE

Analyzing immunosuppressant expenditure in Brazil, using data from the Federal Procurement System database (SIASG), between 2010 and 2015.

METHODS

The pharmaceutical products were classified in accordance with the Anatomical, Therapeutic and Chemical (ATC) classification system recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) and aggregated by volume and by expenditure. The expenditure variation was decomposed into three broad categories: price effects, quantity effects, and drug mix effects.

RESULTS

During the period, annual expenditure increased by 49%, ranging from USD 494.5 million in 2010 to USD 738.7 million in 2015, while purchased quantities increased by 294%, ranging from 49.8 million in 2010 to 196.5 million in 2015. Two factors drove expenditures: the quantity effect and the drug-mix effect.

CONCLUSION

These findings may contribute to understand immunosuppressant spending trends and the factors that influence them in order to formulate effective cost containment strategies and design optimum drug policy. Rigorous evaluations are recommended to reduce the drug-mix effect, including systems to monitor price, effectiveness, safety, therapeutic value and budget impact of pharmaceutical innovations.

Assistência Farmacêutica nos 30 anos do SUS na perspectiva da integralidade

Resumo Os autores analisam a Assistência Farmacêutica (AF) e o acesso a medicamentos no Brasil na perspectiva do princípio da integralidade nos 30 anos do SUS. A partir da sua inclusão no movimento de reforma sanitária, foram selecionados temas relevantes, incluindo a reorientação da AF, a questão de recursos humanos, o conceito de medicamentos essenciais, o uso apropriado de medicamentos, o desenvolvimento tecnológico e a produção industrial e a regulação ética. Com fortes componentes regulatórios e tendo a política nacional de medicamentos como eixo estruturante, as três décadas do SUS são confrontadas entre avanços e retrocessos, considerando a complexidade nacional, as mudanças políticas, econômicas e sociais que impactaram políticas públicas e o acesso a medicamentos, tema que hoje mostra sua importância mesmo nas economias mais ricas do mundo, a partir de foros de discussão relacionados com Saúde Global. As conquistas ao longo do tempo são destacadas, considerando a preocupação decorrente do regime fiscal que compromete as áreas sociais.

Sustainability of ARV provision in developing countries: challenging a framework based on program history

The provision of ARVs is central to HIV/AIDS programs, because of its impact on the course of the disease and on quality of life. Although first-line treatments costs have declined, treatment-associated expenses are steeper each year. Sustainability is therefore an important variable for the success of treatment programs. A conceptual framework on sustainability of ARV provision was developed, followed by data collection instruments. The pilot study was undertaken in Brazil. Bolivia, Peru and Mozambique, were visited. Key informants were identified and interviewed. Investigation of sustainability related to ARV provision involved implementation and routinization events of provision schemes. Evidence of greater sustainability potential was observed in Peru, where provision is implemented and routinized by the National HIV/AIDS program and expenditures met by the government. In Mozambique, provision is dependent on donations and external aid, but the country displays a great effort to incorporate ARV provision and care in routine healthcare activities. Bolivia, in addition to external dependence on financing and management of drug supply, presents problems regarding implementation and routinization. The conceptual framework was useful in recognizing events that influence sustainable ARV provision in these countries.

Hospitalizations due to drug poisoning in under-five-year-old children in Brazil, 2003-2012

OBJECTIVE

to describe hospitalizations due to drug poisonings in children under five years old, in Brazil, from 2003 to 2012.

METHODS

descriptive study, with data from the National Hospital Information System (SIH/SUS); the drugs involved were divided into therapeutic classes, according to the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification (ATC).

RESULTS

17,725 hospitalizations were identified, from which 22,395 poisonings were identified, and 75 deaths; the most common therapeutic classes were unspecified drugs (38.0%), antiepileptic/sedative-hypnotics/anti-parkinson drugs (19.8%), systemic antibiotics (13.4%) and non-opioid-analgesics/antipyretics (6.5%), varying among country regions and age groups; in 38.5% of the poisonings it was not possible to correlate therapeutic classes and ATC categories.

CONCLUSION

the high frequency of unspecified drugs was a limitation; among the specified drugs, the most common were those that act in the central nervous system and those used in pediatric diseases (antibiotics and analgesics).

Expected hazards and hospital beds in host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil

Planning for mass gatherings involves health system preparedness based on an understanding of natural and technological hazards identified through prior risk assessment. We present the expected hazards reported by health administrators of the host cities for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil and discuss the hazards considering minimal available public hospital beds in the 12 cities at the time of the event. Four different groups of respondents were interviewed: pharmaceutical service administrators and overall health administrators at both the municipal and hospital levels. The hospital bed occupancy rate was calculated, based on the Brazilian Health Informatics Department (DATASUS). The number of surplus beds was calculated using parameters from the literature regarding surge and mass casualty needs and number of unoccupied beds. In all groups, physical injuries ranked first, followed by emerging and endemic diseases. Baseline occupancy rates were high (95%CI: 0.93-2.19) in all 12 cities. Total shortage, considering all the cities, ranged from -47,670 (for surges) to -60,569 beds (for mass casualties). The study can contribute to discussions on mass-gathering preparedness.

Preparedness for the Rio 2016 Olympic Games: hospital treatment capacity in georeferenced areas

Recently, Brazil has hosted mass events with recognized international relevance. The 2014 FIFA World Cup was held in 12 Brazilian state capitals and health sector preparedness drew on the history of other World Cups and Brazil's own experience with the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup. The current article aims to analyze the treatment capacity of hospital facilities in georeferenced areas for sports events in the 2016 Olympic Games in the city of Rio de Janeiro, based on a model built drawing on references from the literature. Source of data were Brazilian health databases and the Rio 2016 website. Sports venues for the Olympic Games and surrounding hospitals in a 10km radius were located by geoprocessing and designated a "health area" referring to the probable inflow of persons to be treated in case of hospital referral. Six different factors were used to calculate needs for surge and one was used to calculate needs in case of disasters (20/1,000). Hospital treatment capacity is defined by the coincidence of beds and life support equipment, namely the number of cardiac monitors (electrocardiographs) and ventilators in each hospital unit. Maracanã followed by the Olympic Stadium (Engenhão) and the Sambódromo would have the highest single demand for hospitalizations (1,572, 1,200 and 600, respectively). Hospital treatment capacity proved capable of accommodating surges, but insufficient in cases of mass casualties. In mass events most treatments involve easy clinical management, it is expected that the current capacity will not have negative consequences for participants.

Use of pharmacy records to measure treatment adherence: a critical review of the literature

The current frame of reference on adherence to pharmacotherapy includes a set of behaviors experienced by the user, with observation of the detailed and continuous history of the use of each dose of the medication. Indicators based on pharmacy records have been used to measure adherence. The current review aimed to identify and describe indicators based on pharmacy records and to discuss their adequacy and limitations for measuring adherence. An exploratory literature review was conducted in three databases using the terms "adherence", "pharmacy records/administrative data", and "measure" to compose the descriptors for the selection of 81 articles and the elaboration of a chart with the denomination, sources, methods for calculation, description, and interpretation of the operational and referential meaning of 14 indicators. Given the most recent taxonomy for adherence proposed in the literature, we concluded that the indicators can be useful for identifying patients with medication-seeking behavior-related problems and analysis of persistence. The distance between supply-related events and difficulties in treatment follow-up can influence an analysis based exclusively on the use of these indicators.

The Zika Virus Outbreak in Brazil: Knowledge Gaps and Challenges for Risk Reduction

We analyzed uncertainties and complexities of the Zika virus outbreak in Brazil, and we discuss risk reduction for future emergencies. We present the public health situation in Brazil and concurrent determinants of the epidemic and the knowledge gaps that persist despite building evidence from research, making public health decisions difficult. Brazil has adopted active measures, but producing desired outcomes may be uncertain because of partial or unavailable information. Reducing population group vulnerabilities and acting on environmental issues are medium- to long-term measures. Simultaneously dealing with information gaps, uncontrolled disease spread, and vulnerabilities is a new risk scenario and must be approached decisively to face emerging biothreats.

Trends in medicines procurement by the Brazilian federal government from 2006 to 2013

The costs of medicines pose a growing burden on healthcare systems worldwide. A comprehensive understanding of current procurement processes provides strong support for the development of effective policies. This study examined Brazilian Federal Government pharmaceutical procurement data provided by the Integrated System for the Administration of General Services (SIASG) database, from 2006 to 2013. Medicine purchases were aggregated by volume and expenditure for each year. Data on expenditure were adjusted for inflation using the Extended National Consumer Price Index (IPCA) for December 31, 2013. Lorenz distribution curves were used to study the cumulative proportion of purchased therapeutic classes. Expenditure variance analysis was performed to determine the impact of each factor, price and/or volume, on total expenditure variation. Annual expenditure on medicines increased 2.72 times, while the purchased volume of drugs increased 1.99 times. A limited number of therapeutic classes dominated expenditure each year. Drugs for infectious diseases drove the increase in expenditures from 2006 to 2009 but were replaced by antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents beginning in 2010. Immunosuppressants (L04), accounted for one third of purchases since 2010, showing the most substantial growth in expenditures during the period (250-fold increase). The overwhelming price-related increase in expenditures caused by these medicines is bound to have a relevant impact on the sustainability of the pharmaceutical supply system. We observed increasing trends in expenditures, especially in specific therapeutic classes. We propose the development and implementation of better medicine procurement systems, and strategies to allow for monitoring of product price, effectiveness, and safety. This must be done with ongoing assessment of pharmaceutical innovations, therapeutic value and budget impact.

Essential Medicines List Implementation Dynamics: A Case Study Using Brazilian Federal Medicines Expenditures

The aim was to analyse the implementation dynamics of the essential medicines list (EML). We used the government expenditures on medicines and Brazil as a case study. Drug purchases were considered as a proxy for utilization. The essential medicines (EMs) expenditures were followed over time by Brazilian National EMLs life-time and defined by broad therapeutic categories and by specific medicines. Brazil increased the number of the medicines during the last four editions of Brazilian National EMLs and the federal government expenditures on them. The EML implementation dynamics changed the distribution of expenditures on EMs. We identified a common set of 404 EMs present in all four editions of the Brazilian National EMLs. There was a proportional decrease in expenditures on anti-infectives for systemic use, blood and blood-forming organs and alimentary tract and metabolism, and increase in expenditures on antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents. The expenditures distribution per specific medicines revealed that a small set of EMs was responsible for 50% or more of expenditures considering Brazilian National EML life-time for all four periods. The increase in expenditures on EMs in Brazil was a consequence of the newer medicines incorporated over time in the Brazilian National EMLs. The use of the medicines expenditures as a source of data and the definition of an EML life-time permitted follow-up of the implementation dynamics of different versions of the Brazilian National EMLs. Our results have implications for policymakers and stakeholders to gain a better understanding of the role EMLs play in health system sustainability and in the provision of the most beneficial heath care.

[Essential medicines and the selection process in management practices of pharmaceutical services in Brazilian states and municipalities]

The selection of medicines is a skilled process that produces an essential medicines list (EML) and substantiates rational management of pharmaceutical services. This paper presents the selection of essential medicines in Brazilian states and municipalities. It discusses the perception of pharmaceutical services managers regarding the concept of essential medicines and strategies adopted for their implementation, in addition to investigating how the National Essential Medicines List was adopted and is supporting local pharmaceutical services actions. A nationwide study was carried out adopting a qualitative methodological approach in health. State and municipal managers from the five Brazilian regions were interviewed. The findings point to weaknesses in local selection procedures and in the use of the National Essential Medicines List (Rename). Barriers such as lack of formalization of pharmaceutical services at regional levels, difficulties in drafting and maintaining a pharmacy and therapeutics committee and the acritical incorporation of drugs on the EML were identified. States and municipalities have distortions that exclude the EML form the concept of essential medicines.

[Preparedness of pharmaceutical assistance for disasters: a study in five Brazilian municipalities]

A number of Brazilian municipalities have been affected by disasters in recent years. Municipal managers need to invest in preparedness to mitigate the impact of events and to restrict damages. Disaster preparedness should be conducted on various fronts, including the health sector, of which pharmaceutical services (PS) are a part. The scope of this paper is to describe and analyze PS preparedness in municipalities recently stricken by disasters. For this purpose, an investigation of a cross-sectional design involving various sources (official documents, newspaper articles, public databases and interviews with key PS informants) was conducted in five municipalities in two different regions. Analysis was based on an instrument with a logical model and indicators. Despite the fact that these municipalities are historically disaster-prone, very few measures of PS preparedness were encountered, which is clear evidence that management of PS has not been achieved. It is to be hoped that this presentation of the experiences of these municipalities might foster PS preparedness in other Brazilian municipalities.