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Bhatia N, Wilson-Sánchez D, Strauss S, Vuolo F, Pieper B, Hu Z, Rambaud-Lavigne L, Tsiantis M. Interspersed expression of CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON2 and REDUCED COMPLEXITY shapes Cardamine hirsuta complex leaf form. Curr Biol 2023:S0960-9822(23)00822-9. [PMID: 37453425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
How genetically regulated growth shapes organ form is a key problem in developmental biology. Here, we investigate this problem using the leaflet-bearing complex leaves of Cardamine hirsuta as a model. Leaflet development requires the action of two growth-repressing transcription factors: REDUCED COMPLEXITY (RCO), a homeodomain protein, and CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON2 (CUC2), a NAC-domain protein. However, how their respective growth-repressive actions are integrated in space and time to generate complex leaf forms remains unknown. By using live imaging, we show that CUC2 and RCO are expressed in an interspersed fashion along the leaf margin, creating a distinctive striped pattern. We find that this pattern is functionally important because forcing RCO expression in the CUC2 domain disrupts auxin-based marginal patterning and can abolish leaflet formation. By combining genetic perturbations with time-lapse imaging and cellular growth quantifications, we provide evidence that RCO-mediated growth repression occurs after auxin-based leaflet patterning and in association with the repression of cell proliferation. Additionally, through the use of genetic mosaics, we show that RCO is sufficient to repress both cellular growth and proliferation in a cell-autonomous manner. This mechanism of growth repression is different to that of CUC2, which occurs in proliferating cells. Our findings clarify how the two growth repressors RCO and CUC2 coordinate to subdivide developing leaf primordia into distinct leaflets and generate the complex leaf form. They also indicate different relationships between growth repression and cell proliferation in the patterning and post-patterning stages of organogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Bhatia
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - David Wilson-Sánchez
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sören Strauss
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Francesco Vuolo
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Bjorn Pieper
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Ziliang Hu
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Léa Rambaud-Lavigne
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Miltos Tsiantis
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829 Cologne, Germany.
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Lup SD, Wilson-Sánchez D, Micol JL. Mapping-by-Sequencing of Point and Insertional Mutations with Easymap. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2484:343-361. [PMID: 35461462 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2253-7_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Random mutagenesis followed by screening for phenotypes of interest is a widely used strategy for genetic dissection of biological pathways; however, identifying the causal gene traditionally required time-consuming mapping approaches based on iterative linkage analysis. Mapping-by-sequencing accelerates this process, efficiently linking the phenotype of a mutant to a narrow candidate genomic region, using next-generation sequencing (NGS) data from a mapping population segregating for the mutant phenotype. To enable researchers at any bioinformatics skill level to conduct mapping-by-sequencing, we developed the Easymap mapping software. In this protocol we break down the steps involved in mapping-by-sequencing. First, we describe different ways of obtaining a mapping population and the steps used to generate NGS data. Next, we show how to analyze the NGS data using Easymap and how to obtain a list of candidate mutations, along with comprehensive information for assessing the potential causality of each candidate. Thus, this protocol enables the user to conduct mapping-by-sequencing using Easymap, facilitating the identification of causal loci for a mutant phenotype of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Daniel Lup
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Spain
| | - David Wilson-Sánchez
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - José Luis Micol
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Elche, Spain.
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3
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Lup SD, Wilson-Sánchez D, Andreu-Sánchez S, Micol JL. Easymap: A User-Friendly Software Package for Rapid Mapping-by-Sequencing of Point Mutations and Large Insertions. Front Plant Sci 2021; 12:655286. [PMID: 34040621 PMCID: PMC8143052 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.655286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Mapping-by-sequencing strategies combine next-generation sequencing (NGS) with classical linkage analysis, allowing rapid identification of the causal mutations of the phenotypes exhibited by mutants isolated in a genetic screen. Computer programs that analyze NGS data obtained from a mapping population of individuals derived from a mutant of interest to identify a causal mutation are available; however, the installation and usage of such programs requires bioinformatic skills, modifying or combining pieces of existing software, or purchasing licenses. To ease this process, we developed Easymap, an open-source program that simplifies the data analysis workflows from raw NGS reads to candidate mutations. Easymap can perform bulked segregant mapping of point mutations induced by ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) with DNA-seq or RNA-seq datasets, as well as tagged-sequence mapping for large insertions, such as transposons or T-DNAs. The mapping analyses implemented in Easymap have been validated with experimental and simulated datasets from different plant and animal model species. Easymap was designed to be accessible to all users regardless of their bioinformatics skills by implementing a user-friendly graphical interface, a simple universal installation script, and detailed mapping reports, including informative images and complementary data for assessment of the mapping results. Easymap is available at http://genetics.edu.umh.es/resources/easymap; its Quickstart Installation Guide details the recommended procedure for installation.
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Wolny A, Cerrone L, Vijayan A, Tofanelli R, Barro AV, Louveaux M, Wenzl C, Strauss S, Wilson-Sánchez D, Lymbouridou R, Steigleder SS, Pape C, Bailoni A, Duran-Nebreda S, Bassel GW, Lohmann JU, Tsiantis M, Hamprecht FA, Schneitz K, Maizel A, Kreshuk A. Accurate and versatile 3D segmentation of plant tissues at cellular resolution. eLife 2020; 9:e57613. [PMID: 32723478 PMCID: PMC7447435 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantitative analysis of plant and animal morphogenesis requires accurate segmentation of individual cells in volumetric images of growing organs. In the last years, deep learning has provided robust automated algorithms that approach human performance, with applications to bio-image analysis now starting to emerge. Here, we present PlantSeg, a pipeline for volumetric segmentation of plant tissues into cells. PlantSeg employs a convolutional neural network to predict cell boundaries and graph partitioning to segment cells based on the neural network predictions. PlantSeg was trained on fixed and live plant organs imaged with confocal and light sheet microscopes. PlantSeg delivers accurate results and generalizes well across different tissues, scales, acquisition settings even on non plant samples. We present results of PlantSeg applications in diverse developmental contexts. PlantSeg is free and open-source, with both a command line and a user-friendly graphical interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Wolny
- Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
- EMBLHeidelbergGermany
| | - Lorenzo Cerrone
- Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Athul Vijayan
- School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of MunichFreisingGermany
| | - Rachele Tofanelli
- School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of MunichFreisingGermany
| | | | - Marion Louveaux
- Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Christian Wenzl
- Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Sören Strauss
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - David Wilson-Sánchez
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Rena Lymbouridou
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | | | - Constantin Pape
- Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
- EMBLHeidelbergGermany
| | - Alberto Bailoni
- Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | | | - George W Bassel
- School of Life Sciences, University of WarwickCoventryUnited Kingdom
| | - Jan U Lohmann
- Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Miltos Tsiantis
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding ResearchCologneGermany
| | - Fred A Hamprecht
- Heidelberg Collaboratory for Image Processing, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
| | - Kay Schneitz
- School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of MunichFreisingGermany
| | - Alexis Maizel
- Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg UniversityHeidelbergGermany
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Wilson-Sánchez D, Lup SD, Sarmiento-Mañús R, Ponce MR, Micol JL. Next-generation forward genetic screens: using simulated data to improve the design of mapping-by-sequencing experiments in Arabidopsis. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 47:e140. [PMID: 31544937 PMCID: PMC6868388 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Forward genetic screens have successfully identified many genes and continue to be powerful tools for dissecting biological processes in Arabidopsis and other model species. Next-generation sequencing technologies have revolutionized the time-consuming process of identifying the mutations that cause a phenotype of interest. However, due to the cost of such mapping-by-sequencing experiments, special attention should be paid to experimental design and technical decisions so that the read data allows to map the desired mutation. Here, we simulated different mapping-by-sequencing scenarios. We first evaluated which short-read technology was best suited for analyzing gene-rich genomic regions in Arabidopsis and determined the minimum sequencing depth required to confidently call single nucleotide variants. We also designed ways to discriminate mutagenesis-induced mutations from background Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in mutants isolated in Arabidopsis non-reference lines. In addition, we simulated bulked segregant mapping populations for identifying point mutations and monitored how the size of the mapping population and the sequencing depth affect mapping precision. Finally, we provide the computational basis of a protocol that we already used to map T-DNA insertions with paired-end Illumina-like reads, using very low sequencing depths and pooling several mutants together; this approach can also be used with single-end reads as well as to map any other insertional mutagen. All these simulations proved useful for designing experiments that allowed us to map several mutations in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wilson-Sánchez
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - Samuel Daniel Lup
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - Raquel Sarmiento-Mañús
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - María Rosa Ponce
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - José Luis Micol
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
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Kierzkowski D, Runions A, Vuolo F, Strauss S, Lymbouridou R, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Wilson-Sánchez D, Jenke H, Galinha C, Mosca G, Zhang Z, Canales C, Dello Ioio R, Huijser P, Smith RS, Tsiantis M. A Growth-Based Framework for Leaf Shape Development and Diversity. Cell 2019; 177:1405-1418.e17. [PMID: 31130379 PMCID: PMC6548024 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
How do genes modify cellular growth to create morphological diversity? We study this problem in two related plants with differently shaped leaves: Arabidopsis thaliana (simple leaf shape) and Cardamine hirsuta (complex shape with leaflets). We use live imaging, modeling, and genetics to deconstruct these organ-level differences into their cell-level constituents: growth amount, direction, and differentiation. We show that leaf shape depends on the interplay of two growth modes: a conserved organ-wide growth mode that reflects differentiation; and a local, directional mode that involves the patterning of growth foci along the leaf edge. Shape diversity results from the distinct effects of two homeobox genes on these growth modes: SHOOTMERISTEMLESS broadens organ-wide growth relative to edge-patterning, enabling leaflet emergence, while REDUCED COMPLEXITY inhibits growth locally around emerging leaflets, accentuating shape differences created by patterning. We demonstrate the predictivity of our findings by reconstructing key features of C. hirsuta leaf morphology in A. thaliana. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kierzkowski
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Adam Runions
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Francesco Vuolo
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sören Strauss
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Rena Lymbouridou
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Anne-Lise Routier-Kierzkowska
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - David Wilson-Sánchez
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hannah Jenke
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Carla Galinha
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Gabriella Mosca
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Zhongjuan Zhang
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Claudia Canales
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Raffaele Dello Ioio
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Peter Huijser
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Richard S Smith
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany
| | - Miltos Tsiantis
- Department of Comparative Development and Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Carl-von-Linné-Weg 10, 50829, Cologne, Germany.
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Wilson-Sánchez D, Martínez-López S, Navarro-Cartagena S, Jover-Gil S, Micol JL. Members of the DEAL subfamily of the DUF1218 gene family are required for bilateral symmetry but not for dorsoventrality in Arabidopsis leaves. New Phytol 2018; 217:1307-1321. [PMID: 29139551 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Most plant leaves exhibit bilateral symmetry, which has been hypothesized as an inevitable consequence of the existence of the proximodistal and dorsoventral axes. No gene has been described that affects leaf bilateral symmetry but not dorsoventrality in Arabidopsis thaliana. We screened for viable insertional mutations that affect leaf morphology, and out of more than 700 mutants found only one, desigual1-1 (deal1-1), that exhibited bilateral symmetry breaking but no obvious defects in dorsoventrality. We found that deal1-1 is an allele of VASCULATURE COMPLEXITY AND CONNECTIVITY (VCC). Several overlapping regulatory pathways establish the interspersed lobes and indentations along the margin of Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. These pathways involve feedback loops of auxin, the PIN-FORMED1 (PIN1) auxin efflux carrier, and the CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON2 (CUC2) transcriptional regulator. Early vcc (deal1) leaf primordia fail to acquire bilateral symmetry and instead form ectopic lobes and sinuses. The vcc leaves show aberrant recruitment of marginal cells expressing properly polarized PIN1, resulting in misplaced auxin maxima. Normal PIN1 polarization requires CUC2 expression and CUC2 genetically interacts with VCC; VCC also affects CUC2 expression. VCC has a domain of unknown function, DUF1218, and localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. VCC acts partially redundantly with its two closest paralogs, DEAL2 and DEAL3, in early leaf margin patterning and is required for bilateral symmetry, but its loss of function does not visibly affect dorsoventrality.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wilson-Sánchez
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Sebastián Martínez-López
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Sergio Navarro-Cartagena
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Sara Jover-Gil
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - José Luis Micol
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Elche, Alicante, Spain
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Wilson-Sánchez D, Rubio-Díaz S, Muñoz-Viana R, Pérez-Pérez JM, Jover-Gil S, Ponce MR, Micol JL. Leaf phenomics: a systematic reverse genetic screen for Arabidopsis leaf mutants. Plant J 2014; 79:878-91. [PMID: 24946828 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The study and eventual manipulation of leaf development in plants requires a thorough understanding of the genetic basis of leaf organogenesis. Forward genetic screens have identified hundreds of Arabidopsis mutants with altered leaf development, but the genome has not yet been saturated. To identify genes required for leaf development we are screening the Arabidopsis Salk Unimutant collection. We have identified 608 lines that exhibit a leaf phenotype with full penetrance and almost constant expressivity and 98 additional lines with segregating mutant phenotypes. To allow indexing and integration with other mutants, the mutant phenotypes were described using a custom leaf phenotype ontology. We found that the indexed mutation is present in the annotated locus for 78% of the 553 mutants genotyped, and that in half of these the annotated T-DNA is responsible for the phenotype. To quickly map non-annotated T-DNA insertions, we developed a reliable, cost-effective and easy method based on whole-genome sequencing. To enable comprehensive access to our data, we implemented a public web application named PhenoLeaf (http://genetics.umh.es/phenoleaf) that allows researchers to query the results of our screen, including text and visual phenotype information. We demonstrated how this new resource can facilitate gene function discovery by identifying and characterizing At1g77600, which we found to be required for proximal-distal cell cycle-driven leaf growth, and At3g62870, which encodes a ribosomal protein needed for cell proliferation and chloroplast function. This collection provides a valuable tool for the study of leaf development, characterization of biomass feedstocks and examination of other traits in this fundamental photosynthetic organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wilson-Sánchez
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202, Elche, Spain
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Muñoz-Nortes T, Wilson-Sánchez D, Candela H, Micol JL. Symmetry, asymmetry, and the cell cycle in plants: known knowns and some known unknowns. J Exp Bot 2014; 65:2645-55. [PMID: 24474806 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The body architectures of most multicellular organisms consistently display both symmetry and asymmetry. Here, we discuss some of the available knowledge and open questions on how symmetry and asymmetry appear in several conspicuous plant cells and tissues. We focus, where possible, on the role of genes that participate in the maintenance or the breaking of symmetry and that are directly or indirectly related to the cell cycle, under an organ-centric point of view and with an emphasis on the leaf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Muñoz-Nortes
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - David Wilson-Sánchez
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - Héctor Candela
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
| | - José Luis Micol
- Instituto de Bioingeniería, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, 03202 Elche, Spain
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