Molecular Profiles of Contrasting Shade Response Strategies in Wild Plants: Differential Control of Immunity and Shoot Elongation

Plants growing at high densities elongate their shoots to reach for light, a response known as the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS). Phytochrome-mediated detection of far-red light reflection from neighboring plants activates growth-promoting molecular pathways leading to SAS However, it is unknown how plants that complete their life cycle in the forest understory and are shade tolerant prevent SAS when exposed to shade. Here, we show how two wild Geranium species from different native light environments regulate contrasting responses to light quality cues. A comparative RNA sequencing approach unveiled the molecular underpinnings of their contrasting growth responses to far-red light enrichment. It also identified differential phytochrome control of plant immunity genes and confirmed that far-red enrichment indeed contrastingly affects resistance against Botrytis cinerea between the two species. Furthermore, we identify a number of candidate regulators of differential shade avoidance. Three of these, the receptor-like kinases FERONIA and THESEUS1 and the non-DNA binding bHLH protein KIDARI, are functionally validated in Arabidopsis thaliana through gene knockout and/or overexpression studies. We propose that these components may be associated with either showing or not showing shade avoidance responses.

Integration of Phytochrome and Cryptochrome Signals Determines Plant Growth during Competition for Light

Plants in dense vegetation perceive their neighbors primarily through changes in light quality. Initially, the ratio between red (R) and far-red (FR) light decreases due to reflection of FR by plant tissue well before shading occurs. Perception of low R:FR by the phytochrome photoreceptors induces the shade avoidance response [1], of which accelerated elongation growth of leaf-bearing organs is an important feature. Low R:FR-induced phytochrome inactivation leads to the accumulation and activation of the transcription factors PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs) 4, 5, and 7 and subsequent expression of their growth-mediating targets [2, 3]. When true shading occurs, transmitted light is especially depleted in red and blue (B) wavelengths, due to absorption by chlorophyll [4]. Although the reduction of blue wavelengths alone does not occur in nature, long-term exposure to low B light induces a shade avoidance-like response that is dependent on the cryptochrome photoreceptors and the transcription factors PIF4 and PIF5 [5-7]. We show in Arabidopsis thaliana that low B in combination with low R:FR enhances petiole elongation similar to vegetation shade, providing functional context for a low B response in plant competition. Low B potentiates the low R:FR response through PIF4, PIF5, and PIF7, and it involves increased PIF5 abundance and transcriptional changes. Low B attenuates a low R:FR-induced negative feedback loop through reduced gene expression of negative regulators and reduced HFR1 levels. The enhanced response to combined phytochrome and cryptochrome inactivation shows how multiple light cues can be integrated to fine-tune the plant's response to a changing environment.

Interactions between auxin, microtubules and XTHs mediate green shade- induced petiole elongation in arabidopsis

Plants are highly attuned to translating environmental changes to appropriate modifications in growth. Such phenotypic plasticity is observed in dense vegetations, where shading by neighboring plants, triggers rapid unidirectional shoot growth (shade avoidance), such as petiole elongation, which is partly under the control of auxin. This growth is fuelled by cellular expansion requiring cell-wall modification by proteins such as xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs). Cortical microtubules (cMTs) are highly dynamic cytoskeletal structures that are also implicated in growth regulation. The objective of this study was to investigate the tripartite interaction between auxin, cMTs and XTHs in shade avoidance. Our results indicate a role for cMTs to control rapid petiole elongation in Arabidopsis during shade avoidance. Genetic and pharmacological perturbation of cMTs obliterated shade-induced growth and led to a reduction in XTH activity as well. Furthermore, the cMT disruption repressed the shade-induced expression of a specific set of XTHs. These XTHs were also regulated by the hormone auxin, an important regulator of plant developmental plasticity and also of several shade avoidance responses. Accordingly, the effect of cMT disruption on the shade enhanced XTH expression could be rescued by auxin application. Based on the results we hypothesize that cMTs can mediate petiole elongation during shade avoidance by regulating the expression of cell wall modifying proteins via control of auxin distribution.

Blue light regulated shade avoidance

Most plants grow in dense vegetation with the risk of being out-competed by neighboring plants. These neighbors can be detected not only through the depletion in light quantity that they cause, but also through the change in light quality, which plants perceive using specific photoreceptors. Both the reduction of the red:far-red ratio and the depletion of blue light are signals that induce a set of phenotypic traits, such as shoot elongation and leaf hyponasty, which increase the likelihood of light capture in dense plant stands. This set of phenotypic responses are part of the so called shade avoidance syndrome (SAS). This addendum discusses recent findings on the regulation of the SAS of Arabidopsis thaliana upon blue light depletion. Keller et al. and Keuskamp et al. show that the low blue light attenuation induced shade avoidance response of seedling and rosette-stage A. thaliana plants differ in their hormonal regulation. These studies also show there is a regulatory overlap with the R:FR-regulated SAS.

Blue-light-mediated shade avoidance requires combined auxin and brassinosteroid action in Arabidopsis seedlings

Plant growth in dense vegetation can be strongly affected by competition for light between neighbours. These neighbours can not only be detected through phytochrome-mediated perception of a reduced red:far-red ratio, but also through altered blue light fluence rates. A reduction in blue light (low blue) induces a set of phenotypic traits, such as shoot elongation, to consolidate light capture; these are called shade avoidance responses. Here we show that both auxin and brassinosteroids (BR) play an important role in the regulation of enhanced hypocotyl elongation of Arabidopsis seedlings in response to blue light depletion. Only when both hormones are experimentally blocked simultaneously, using mutants and chemical inhibitors, will the response be fully inhibited. Upon exposure to low blue several members of the cell wall modifying XYLOGLUCAN ENDOTRANSGLUCOSYLASE/HYDROLASE (XTH) protein family are regulated as well. Interestingly, auxin and BR each regulate a subset of these XTHs, by which they could regulate cell elongation. We hypothesize that auxin and BR regulate specific XTH genes in a non-redundant and non-synergistic manner during low-blue-induced shade avoidance responses of Arabidopsis seedlings, which explains why both hormones are required for an intact low-blue response.

Auxin transport through PIN-FORMED 3 (PIN3) controls shade avoidance and fitness during competition

Plants grow in dense vegetations at the risk of being out-competed by neighbors. To increase their competitive power, plants display adaptive responses, such as rapid shoot elongation (shade avoidance) to consolidate light capture. These responses are induced upon detection of proximate neighbors through perception of the reduced ratio between red (R) and far-red (FR) light that is typical for dense vegetations. The plant hormone auxin is a central regulator of plant development and plasticity, but until now it has been unknown how auxin transport is controlled to regulate shade-avoidance responses. Here, we show that low R:FR detection changes the cellular location of the PIN-FORMED 3 (PIN3) protein, a regulator of auxin efflux, in Arabidopsis seedlings. As a result, auxin levels in the elongating hypocotyls are increased under low R:FR. Seedlings of the pin3-3 mutant lack this low R:FR-induced increase of endogenous auxin in the hypocotyl and, accordingly, have no elongation response to low R:FR. We hypothesize that low R:FR-induced stimulation of auxin biosynthesis drives the regulation of PIN3, thus allowing shade avoidance to occur. The adaptive significance of PIN3-mediated control of shade-avoidance is shown in plant competition studies. It was found that pin3 mutants are outcompeted by wild-type neighbors who suppress fitness of pin3-3 by 40%. We conclude that low R:FR modulates the auxin distribution by a change in the cellular location of PIN3, and that this control can be of great importance for plants growing in dense vegetations.

Physiological regulation and functional significance of shade avoidance responses to neighbors

Plants growing in dense vegetations compete with their neighbors for resources such as water, nutrients and light. The competition for light has been particularly well studied, both for its fitness consequences as well as the adaptive behaviors that plants display to win the battle for light interception. Aboveground, plants detect their competitors through photosensory cues, notably the red:far-red light ratio (R:FR). The R:FR is a very reliable indicator of future competition as it decreases in a plant-specific manner though red light absorption for photosynthesis and is sensed with the phytochrome photoreceptors. In addition, also blue light depletion is perceived for neighbor detection. As a response to these light signals plants display a suite of phenotypic traits defined as the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS). The SAS helps to position the photosynthesizing leaves in the higher zones of a canopy where light conditions are more favorable. In this review we will discuss the physiological control mechanisms through which the photosensory signals are transduced into the adaptive phenotypic responses that make up the SAS. Using this mechanistic knowledge as a starting point, we will discuss how the SAS functions in the context of the complex multi-facetted environments that plants usually grow in.

Auxin and ethylene regulate elongation responses to neighbor proximity signals independent of gibberellin and della proteins in Arabidopsis

Plants modify growth in response to the proximity of neighbors. Among these growth adjustments are shade avoidance responses, such as enhanced elongation of stems and petioles, that help plants to reach the light and outgrow their competitors. Neighbor detection occurs through photoreceptor-mediated detection of light spectral changes (i.e. reduced red:far-red ratio [R:FR] and reduced blue light intensity). We recently showed that physiological regulation of these responses occurs through light-mediated degradation of nuclear, growth-inhibiting DELLA proteins, but this appeared to be only part of the full mechanism. Here, we present how two hormones, auxin and ethylene, coregulate DELLAs but regulate shade avoidance responses through DELLA-independent mechanisms in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Auxin appears to be required for both seedling and mature plant shoot elongation responses to low blue light and low R:FR, respectively. Auxin action is increased upon exposure to low R:FR and low blue light, and auxin inhibition abolishes the elongation responses to these light cues. Ethylene action is increased during the mature plant response to low R:FR, and this growth response is abolished by ethylene insensitivity. However, ethylene is also a direct volatile neighbor detection signal that induces strong elongation in seedlings, possibly in an auxin-dependent manner. We propose that this novel ethylene and auxin control of shade avoidance interacts with DELLA abundance but also controls independent targets to regulate adaptive growth responses to surrounding vegetation.