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Smidler AL, Marrogi E, Kauffman J, Paton DG, Westervelt KA, Church GM, Esvelt KM, Shaw WR, Catteruccia F. CRISPR-mediated germline mutagenesis for genetic sterilization of Anopheles gambiae males. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4057. [PMID: 38374393 PMCID: PMC10876656 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54498-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Rapid spread of insecticide resistance among anopheline mosquitoes threatens malaria elimination efforts, necessitating development of alternative vector control technologies. Sterile insect technique (SIT) has been successfully implemented in multiple insect pests to suppress field populations by the release of large numbers of sterile males, yet it has proven difficult to adapt to Anopheles vectors. Here we outline adaptation of a CRISPR-based genetic sterilization system to selectively ablate male sperm cells in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. We achieve robust mosaic biallelic mutagenesis of zero population growth (zpg, a gene essential for differentiation of germ cells) in F1 individuals after intercrossing a germline-expressing Cas9 transgenic line to a line expressing zpg-targeting gRNAs. Approximately 95% of mutagenized males display complete genetic sterilization, and cause similarly high levels of infertility in their female mates. Using a fluorescence reporter that allows detection of the germline leads to a 100% accurate selection of spermless males, improving the system. These males cause a striking reduction in mosquito population size when released at field-like frequencies in competition cages against wild type males. These findings demonstrate that such a genetic system could be adopted for SIT against important malaria vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L Smidler
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Biology, University of California - San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Eryney Marrogi
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jamie Kauffman
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Douglas G Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Kathleen A Westervelt
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - George M Church
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Kevin M Esvelt
- Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - W Robert Shaw
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA.
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA.
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Smidler AL, Paton DG, Church GM, Esvelt KM, Shaw WR, Catteruccia F. CRISPR-mediated germline mutagenesis for genetic sterilization of Anopheles gambiae males. bioRxiv 2023:2023.06.13.544841. [PMID: 37398131 PMCID: PMC10312776 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.13.544841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Rapid spread of insecticide resistance among anopheline mosquitoes threatens malaria elimination efforts, necessitating development of alternative vector control technologies. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) has been successfully implemented in multiple insect pests to suppress field populations by the release of large numbers of sterile males, yet it has proven difficult to adapt to Anopheles vectors. Here we outline adaptation of a CRISPR-based genetic sterilization system to selectively ablate male sperm cells in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. We achieve robust mosaic biallelic mutagenesis of zero population growth (zpg, a gene essential for differentiation of germ cells) in F1 individuals after intercrossing a germline-expressing Cas9 transgenic line to a line expressing zpg-targeting gRNAs. Approximately 95% of mutagenized males display complete genetic sterilization, and cause similarly high levels of infertility in their female mates. Using a fluorescence reporter that allows detection of the germline leads to a 100% accurate selection of spermless males, improving the system. These males cause a striking reduction in mosquito population size when released at field-like frequencies in competition cages against wild type males. These findings demonstrate that such a genetic system could be adopted for SIT against important malaria vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L Smidler
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Douglas G Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - George M Church
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kevin M Esvelt
- Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - W Robert Shaw
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase MD 20815, USA
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase MD 20815, USA
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Kamiya T, Paton DG, Catteruccia F, Reece SE. Targeting malaria parasites inside mosquitoes: ecoevolutionary consequences. Trends Parasitol 2022; 38:1031-1040. [PMID: 36209032 PMCID: PMC9815470 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Proof-of-concept studies demonstrate that antimalarial drugs designed for human treatment can also be applied to mosquitoes to interrupt malaria transmission. Deploying a new control tool is ideally undertaken within a stewardship programme that maximises a drug's lifespan by minimising the risk of resistance evolution and slowing its spread once emerged. We ask: what are the epidemiological and evolutionary consequences of targeting parasites within mosquitoes? Our synthesis argues that targeting parasites inside mosquitoes (i) can be modelled by readily expanding existing epidemiological frameworks; (ii) provides a functionally novel control method that has potential to be more robust to resistance evolution than targeting parasites in humans; and (iii) could extend the lifespan and clinical benefit of antimalarials used exclusively to treat humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsukushi Kamiya
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris, France; HRB Clinical Research Facility, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland; Institute of Ecology and Evolution, and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Douglas G Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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Paton DG, Probst AS, Ma E, Adams KL, Shaw WR, Singh N, Bopp S, Volkman SK, Hien DFS, Paré PSL, Yerbanga RS, Diabaté A, Dabiré RK, Lefèvre T, Wirth DF, Catteruccia F. Using an antimalarial in mosquitoes overcomes Anopheles and Plasmodium resistance to malaria control strategies. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010609. [PMID: 35687594 PMCID: PMC9223321 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The spread of insecticide resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes and drug resistance in Plasmodium parasites is contributing to a global resurgence of malaria, making the generation of control tools that can overcome these roadblocks an urgent public health priority. We recently showed that the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum parasites can be efficiently blocked when exposing Anopheles gambiae females to antimalarials deposited on a treated surface, with no negative consequences on major components of mosquito fitness. Here, we demonstrate this approach can overcome the hurdles of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes and drug resistant in parasites. We show that the transmission-blocking efficacy of mosquito-targeted antimalarials is maintained when field-derived, insecticide resistant Anopheles are exposed to the potent cytochrome b inhibitor atovaquone, demonstrating that this drug escapes insecticide resistance mechanisms that could potentially interfere with its function. Moreover, this approach prevents transmission of field-derived, artemisinin resistant P. falciparum parasites (Kelch13 C580Y mutant), proving that this strategy could be used to prevent the spread of parasite mutations that induce resistance to front-line antimalarials. Atovaquone is also highly effective at limiting parasite development when ingested by mosquitoes in sugar solutions, including in ongoing infections. These data support the use of mosquito-targeted antimalarials as a promising tool to complement and extend the efficacy of current malaria control interventions. Effective control of malaria is hampered by resistance to vector-targeted insecticides and parasite-targeted drugs. This situation is exacerbated by a critical lack of chemical diversity in both interventions and, as such, new interventions are urgently needed. Recent laboratory studies have shown that an alternative approach based on treating Anopheles mosquitoes directly with antimalarial compounds can make mosquitoes incapable of transmitting the Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria. While promising, showing that mosquito-targeted antimalarials remain effective against wild parasites and mosquitoes, including drug- and insecticide-resistant populations in malaria-endemic countries, is crucial to the future viability of this approach. In this study, carried out in the US and Burkina Faso, we show that insecticide-resistance mechanisms found in highly resistant, natural Anopheles mosquito populations do not interfere with the transmission blocking activity of tarsal exposure to the antimalarial atovaquone, and that mosquito-targeted antimalarial exposure can block transmission of parasites resistant to the main therapeutic antimalarial drug artemisinin. By combining lab, and field-based studies in this way we have demonstrated that this novel approach can be effective in areas where conventional control measures are no longer as effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas G. Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DGP); (FC)
| | - Alexandra S. Probst
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Erica Ma
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Kelsey L. Adams
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - W. Robert Shaw
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Naresh Singh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Selina Bopp
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Sarah K. Volkman
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Domombele F. S. Hien
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Prislaure S. L. Paré
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Rakiswendé S. Yerbanga
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Abdoullaye Diabaté
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Roch K. Dabiré
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé/Centre Muraz, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Thierry Lefèvre
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Laboratoire mixte international sur les vecteurs (LAMIVECT), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
- Centre de Recherche en Écologie et Évolution de la Santé (CREES), Montpellier, France
| | - Dyann F. Wirth
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DGP); (FC)
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Shaw WR, Holmdahl IE, Itoe MA, Werling K, Marquette M, Paton DG, Singh N, Buckee CO, Childs LM, Catteruccia F. Multiple blood feeding in mosquitoes shortens the Plasmodium falciparum incubation period and increases malaria transmission potential. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1009131. [PMID: 33382824 PMCID: PMC7774842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Many mosquito species, including the major malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, naturally undergo multiple reproductive cycles of blood feeding, egg development and egg laying in their lifespan. Such complex mosquito behavior is regularly overlooked when mosquitoes are experimentally infected with malaria parasites, limiting our ability to accurately describe potential effects on transmission. Here, we examine how Plasmodium falciparum development and transmission potential is impacted when infected mosquitoes feed an additional time. We measured P. falciparum oocyst size and performed sporozoite time course analyses to determine the parasite's extrinsic incubation period (EIP), i.e. the time required by parasites to reach infectious sporozoite stages, in An. gambiae females blood fed either once or twice. An additional blood feed at 3 days post infection drastically accelerates oocyst growth rates, causing earlier sporozoite accumulation in the salivary glands, thereby shortening the EIP (reduction of 2.3 ± 0.4 days). Moreover, parasite growth is further accelerated in transgenic mosquitoes with reduced reproductive capacity, which mimic genetic modifications currently proposed in population suppression gene drives. We incorporate our shortened EIP values into a measure of transmission potential, the basic reproduction number R0, and find the average R0 is higher (range: 10.1%-12.1% increase) across sub-Saharan Africa than when using traditional EIP measurements. These data suggest that malaria elimination may be substantially more challenging and that younger mosquitoes or those with reduced reproductive ability may provide a larger contribution to infection than currently believed. Our findings have profound implications for current and future mosquito control interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Robert Shaw
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Inga E. Holmdahl
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Maurice A. Itoe
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kristine Werling
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Meghan Marquette
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Douglas G. Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Naresh Singh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Caroline O. Buckee
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Lauren M. Childs
- Department of Mathematics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Brown F, Paton DG, Catteruccia F, Ranson H, Ingham VA. A steroid hormone agonist reduces female fitness in insecticide-resistant Anopheles populations. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2020; 121:103372. [PMID: 32276112 PMCID: PMC10569452 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2020.103372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Insecticide based vector control tools such as insecticide treated bednets and indoor residual spraying represent the cornerstones of malaria control programs. Resistance to chemistries used in these programs is now widespread and represents a significant threat to the gains seen in reducing malaria-related morbidity and mortality. Recently, disruption of the 20-hydroxyecdysone steroid hormone pathway was shown to reduce Plasmodium development and significantly reduce both longevity and egg production in a laboratory susceptible Anopheles gambiae population. Here, we demonstrate that disruption of this pathway by application of the dibenzoylhydrazine, methoxyfenozide (DBH-M), to insecticide resistant An. coluzzii, An. gambiae sl and An. funestus populations significantly reduces egg production in both topical and tarsal application. Moreover, DBH-M reduces adult longevity when applied topically, and tarsally after blood feeding. As the cytochrome p450s elevated in pyrethroid resistant Anopheles only bind DBH-M very weakly, this compound is unlikely to be subject to cross-resistance in a field-based setting. Manipulation of this hormonal signalling pathway therefore represents a potential complementary approach to current malaria control strategies, particularly in areas where high levels of insecticide resistance are compromising existing tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faye Brown
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L35QA, UK
| | - Douglas G Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 655 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Hilary Ranson
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L35QA, UK
| | - Victoria A Ingham
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L35QA, UK.
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Werling K, Shaw WR, Itoe MA, Westervelt KA, Marcenac P, Paton DG, Peng D, Singh N, Smidler AL, South A, Deik AA, Mancio-Silva L, Demas AR, March S, Calvo E, Bhatia SN, Clish CB, Catteruccia F. Steroid Hormone Function Controls Non-competitive Plasmodium Development in Anopheles. Cell 2019; 177:315-325.e14. [PMID: 30929905 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transmission of malaria parasites occurs when a female Anopheles mosquito feeds on an infected host to acquire nutrients for egg development. How parasites are affected by oogenetic processes, principally orchestrated by the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), remains largely unknown. Here we show that Plasmodium falciparum development is intimately but not competitively linked to processes shaping Anopheles gambiae reproduction. We unveil a 20E-mediated positive correlation between egg and oocyst numbers; impairing oogenesis by multiple 20E manipulations decreases parasite intensities. These manipulations, however, accelerate Plasmodium growth rates, allowing sporozoites to become infectious sooner. Parasites exploit mosquito lipids for faster growth, but they do so without further affecting egg development. These results suggest that P. falciparum has adopted a non-competitive evolutionary strategy of resource exploitation to optimize transmission while minimizing fitness costs to its mosquito vector. Our findings have profound implications for currently proposed control strategies aimed at suppressing mosquito populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Werling
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - W Robert Shaw
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Maurice A Itoe
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kathleen A Westervelt
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Perrine Marcenac
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Douglas G Paton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Duo Peng
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Naresh Singh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Andrea L Smidler
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Adam South
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Amy A Deik
- Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Liliana Mancio-Silva
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Allison R Demas
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Sandra March
- Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Eric Calvo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Sangeeta N Bhatia
- Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA; Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Flaminia Catteruccia
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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