New perspectives on PPAR, VDR and FXRα as new actors in testicular pathophysiology

The incidence of reproductive disorders is constantly increasing and affects 15% of couples, with male's abnormalities diagnosed in almost half of the cases. The male gonads exert two major functions of the testis with the productions of gametes (exocrine function) and of sexual hormones (endocrine function). In the last decades, next to steroid receptors such as estrogen and androgen receptors, the involvement of other members of the nuclear receptor superfamily have been described such as Steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), Nerve growth factor IB (NGFIB), Liver-X-Receptorα (LXRα) and Dosage-sensitive sex reversal, adrenal hypoplasia critical region, on chromosome X, gene 1 (DAX-1). The purpose of this review is to highlight the emerging roles of some members of the nuclear receptor superfamily among which the vitamin-D Receptor (VDR), Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPAR), Farnesoid-X-Receptor-α (FXRα). We discuss how these receptors could participate to explain male fertility disorders; and their potential to be use as biomarkers or therapeutic targets for management of fertility disorders.

Atorvastatin inhibits hypercholesterolemia-induced calcification in the aortic valves via the Lrp5 receptor pathway

BACKGROUND

Calcific aortic valve disease is the most common indication for surgical valve replacement in the United States. The cellular mechanisms of valve calcification are not well understood. We have previously shown that cellular proliferation and osteoblastogenesis are important in the development of valvular heart disease. Lrp5, a known low-density receptor-related protein, plays an essential role in cellular proliferation and osteoblastogenesis via the beta-catenin signaling pathway. We hypothesize that Lrp5 also plays a role in aortic valve (AV) calcification in experimental hypercholesterolemia.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We examined the effects of cholesterol and atorvastatin in Watanabe rabbits (n=54). Group I (n=18) received a normal diet, group II (n=18) a 0.25% cholesterol diet, and group III (n=18) a 0.25% (w/w) cholesterol diet with atorvastatin for the development of calcification. The AVs were examined for cellular proliferation, Lrp5/beta-catenin, and bone matrix markers. Bone formation was assessed by micro-computed tomography, calcein injection, and osteopontin expression. Low-density lipoprotein with and without atorvastatin was also tested in AV myofibroblasts for cellular proliferation and regulation of the Lrp5/beta-catenin pathway. Our results demonstrate that the cholesterol diet induced complex bone formations in the calcified AVs with an increase in the Lrp5 receptors, osteopontin, and p42/44 expression. Atorvastatin reduced bone formation, cellular proliferation, and Lrp5/beta-catenin protein levels in the AVs. In vitro analysis confirmed the Lrp5/beta-catenin expression in myofibroblast cell proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypercholesterolemic AV calcification is attenuated by atorvastatin and is mediated in part by the Lrp5/beta-catenin pathway. This developmental pathway may be important in the signaling pathway of this disease.

[Regulation of lipid metabolism by the orphan nuclear receptors]

Lipids (cholesterol and fatty acids) are essential nutriments and have a major impact on gene expression. Hence cholesterol intracellular concentration is precisely controlled by some complex mechanisms involving transcriptional regulations. The excess of cholesterol in cells is converted into oxysterols. These cholesterol metabolites are important signalisation molecules that modulate several transcription factors involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Schematically, regulation of cholesterol homeostasis is achieved by three different but complementary pathways: 1) endogeneous biosynthesis, which corresponds to the de novo synthesis of cholesterol and is controlled by sterol response element binding proteins (SREBPs); 2) the transport, intracellular absorption and esterification of the cholesterol; 3) the metabolic conversion into bile acids and steroid hormones. These three pathways are closely linked, however we will schematically detail the role of the orphan nuclear receptors on the modulation of these three levels of regulation. Phenotype analyses of knock-out or transgenic mice pointed out the respective role of the "enterohepatic" orphan nuclear receptors LXRalpha, LXRB, FXR, LRH-1, the nuclear receptor PPARalpha, and their heterodimeric partner RXR, as well as the peculiar receptor SHP. Complex feed-backs have thus been demonstrated. These transciptional regulations have several targets: the P450 cytochromes involved in the bile acid synthesis Cyp7a1 and Cyp8b1; the intestinal bile acid binding protein IBABP; the cholesteryl ester transfert protein CETP and phospholipid transfert protein PLTP, both involved in the HDL catabolism; the ABC cholesterol transporters ABCG1/ABC8 and ABCAI/ABCI. At last it seems that polyunsaturated fatty acids could activate LXRalpha transcription through its activation by PPARalpha. In the near future, the identification and study of new target genes by transcriptomic or proteomic analyses will allow a better understanding of lipid homeostasis in physiological as well as pathophysiological conditions.

Cloning and characterization of RAP250, a novel nuclear receptor coactivator

Ligand-induced transcriptional activation of gene expression by nuclear receptors is dependent on recruitment of coactivators as intermediary factors. The present work describes the cloning and characterization of RAP250, a novel human nuclear receptor coactivator. The results of in vitro and in vivo experiments indicate that the interaction of RAP250 with nuclear receptors is ligand-dependent or ligand-enhanced depending on the nuclear receptor and involves only one short LXXLL motif called nuclear receptor box. Transient transfection assays further demonstrate that RAP250 has a large intrinsic glutamine-rich activation domain and can significantly enhance the transcriptional activity of several nuclear receptors, acting as a coactivator. Interestingly, Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses reveal that RAP250 is widely expressed with the highest expression in reproductive organs (testis, prostate and ovary) and brain. Together, our data suggest that RAP250 may play an important role in mammalian gene expression mediated by nuclear receptor.

Differential regulation by a peroxisome proliferator of the different multifunctional proteins in guinea pig: cDNA cloning of the guinea pig D-specific multifunctional protein 2

After our previous report on the cloning of two cDNA species in guinea pig, both encoding the same hepatic 79 kDa multifunctional protein 1 (MFP-1) [Caira, Cherkaoui-Malki, Hoefler and Latruffe (1996) FEBS Lett. 378, 57-60], here we report the cloning of a cDNA encoding a second multifunctional peroxisomal protein (MFP-2) in guinea-pig liver. This 2356 nt cDNA encodes a protein of 735 residues (79.7 kDa) whose sequence shows 83% identity with rat MFP-2 [Dieuaide-Noubhani, Novikov, Baumgart, Vanhooren, Fransen, Goethals, Vandekerckhove, Van Veldhoven and Mannaerts (1996) Eur. J. Biochem. 240, 660-666]. In parallel, we studied the effect of ciprofibrate, a hypolipaemic agent also known as peroxisome proliferator in rodent, on the expression of MFP-1 and MFP-2 (2.6 kb) in rats and guinea pigs. By Northern blotting analysis we demonstrated that three MFP-1-related mRNA species are expressed in the guinea-pig liver. The expression of two of them (3.5 and 2.6 kb) is slightly increased by ciprofibrate, whereas the 3.0 kb MFP-1 mRNA is, unlike the rat one, strongly down-regulated in guinea pigs treated with ciprofibrate. In a similar way, the hepatic expression of the guinea-pig 2.6 kb MFP-2 mRNA is also down-regulated in guinea pigs treated with ciprofibrate. These results demonstrate (1) that in contrast with the unique 3.0 kb MFP-1 rat mRNA, at least three hepatic MFP-1-related mRNA species are co-expressed in guinea pig; and (2) that, opposed to the accepted idea of non-responsiveness of the guinea pig to ciprofibrate, this drug affects MFP-1 and MFP-2 gene expression in this species. Also, the mRNA species for acyl-CoA oxidase and thiolase, two other enzymes of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway that are induced severalfold in responsive species are down-regulated in guinea pig. This paper is the first, to our knowledge, reporting the down-regulation of the expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in the peroxisomal beta-oxidation of fatty acids (MFP-1) and bile acid synthesis (MFP-2) in mammals.

Cloning and tissue expression of two cDNAs encoding the peroxisomal 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase in the guinea pig liver

The 2-enoyl-CoA hydratase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HD) is the second enzyme of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway. In human and rat, only one HD mRNA has been so far detected in the liver. This paper reports for the first time in a mammal species, the guinea pig, the cloning and sequencing of two cDNAs encoding an HD. The 3,274 nucleotide-cDNA is a strictly identical but longer copy of the 2,494 nucleotide-form. A 2,178 bp-open reading frame encodes a protein of 726 amino acids (M(r) 79.3 kDa) with the peroxisomal-targeting signal (tripeptide SKL) at the carboxyterminus. Northern blot analysis of HD mRNA identified three mRNAs of respective sizes 3.5, 2.6 and 1.6 kb in the guinea pig liver and kidneys.

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional analysis of peroxisomal protein encoding genes from rat treated with an hypolipemic agent, ciprofibrate. Effect of an intermittent treatment and influence of obesity

The treatment of rats with ciprofibrate, a potent peroxisome proliferator, led to increased levels of the peroxisomal acyl-CoA oxidase (ACO) mRNA. How ciprofibrate functions to elevate ACO mRNA is not known. To help determine the mechanism of ciprofibrate action, in vitro transcription assays were performed. It was determined that ciprofibrate was responsible for a 3.5-fold stimulation of the rate of ACO transcription within 24 hr of ingestion. It was also observed that the transcription rate stimulation following a 2-week ciprofibrate treatment of Wistar rats was maintained following 4 weeks of ciprofibrate withdrawal. Re-introduction of the drug after the 4-week pause resulted in greater stimulation than was initially observed. The results demonstrate that the effect of ciprofibrate is rapid and persists at least twice as long as the initial treatment period. In Zucker rats, both lean and obese, ACO mRNA levels were examined following 2 weeks of ciprofibrate treatment (1 or 3 mg/kg body weight/day). The presence of increased blood levels of triglycerides did not increase ciprofibrate action on transcription, although basal levels of transcription of peroxisomal enzymes were higher in obese rats. The increase in the ACO mRNA level was greater than the transcription rate stimulation suggesting a post-transcriptional regulation.

Response of genetically obese Zucker rats to ciprofibrate, a hypolipidemic agent, with peroxisome proliferation activity as compared to Zucker lean and Sprague-Dawley rats

Genetically obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats were used as an experimental model to study the effects of hypolipidemic agents on peroxisome proliferation; comparison was made with Zucker lean phenotype (Fa/-) and Sprague-Dawley strain/phenotype. The pharmacokinetics of a single administration of ciprofibrate (1 or 3 mg/kg), appeared to be similar in all strains/phenotypes. After a 2-week oral administration at the same dosages, there were dosage-related increases in hepatocellular peroxisomal yield and in the hepatic enzymes' cyanide-insensitive acyl-CoA oxidase and catalase. The peroxisomal yield was less increased in Zucker than in Sprague-Dawley rats, while the enzyme activities were similarly increased. Although the absolute specific activity of microsomal omega-lauryl hydroxylase (cytochrome P4504A1) was lower in Zucker rats, it was increased more in this strain than in Sprague-Dawley rats in response to drug exposure. The hypolipidemic effect (cholesterol and triglyceride reduction) was more pronounced in Zucker obese rats. Based on biochemical and morphological results, no major differences between strains/phenotypes in terms of peroxisome proliferation were observed following a 2-week administration of ciprofibrate.