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Haars J, Palanisamy N, Wallin F, Mölling P, Lindh J, Sundqvist M, Ellström P, Kaden R, Lennerstrand J. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Sublineages and Spike Protein Mutations Conferring Resistance against Monoclonal Antibodies in a Swedish Cohort during 2022-2023. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2417. [PMID: 37894075 PMCID: PMC10609123 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11102417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are an important treatment option for COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2, especially in immunosuppressed patients. However, this treatment option can become ineffective due to mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 genome, mainly in the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike (S) protein. In the present study, 7950 SARS-CoV-2 positive samples from the Uppsala and Örebro regions of central Sweden, collected between March 2022 and May 2023, were whole-genome sequenced using amplicon-based sequencing methods on Oxford Nanopore GridION, Illumina MiSeq, Illumina HiSeq, or MGI DNBSEQ-G400 instruments. Pango lineages were determined and all single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutations that occurred in these samples were identified. We found that the dominant sublineages changed over time, and mutations conferring resistance to currently available mAbs became common. Notable ones are R346T and K444T mutations in the RBD that confer significant resistance against tixagevimab and cilgavimab mAbs. Further, mutations conferring a high-fold resistance to bebtelovimab, such as the K444T and V445P mutations, were also observed in the samples. This study highlights that resistance mutations have over time rendered currently available mAbs ineffective against SARS-CoV-2 in most patients. Therefore, there is a need for continued surveillance of resistance mutations and the development of new mAbs that target more conserved regions of the RBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Haars
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene Uppsala University, Akademiska Sjukhuset Entrance 40 Floor 5, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; (J.H.); (J.L.); (P.E.); (R.K.)
| | | | - Frans Wallin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, Örebro University Hospital, Södra Grev Rosengatan, 701 85 Örebro, Sweden;
| | - Paula Mölling
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden; (P.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Johan Lindh
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene Uppsala University, Akademiska Sjukhuset Entrance 40 Floor 5, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; (J.H.); (J.L.); (P.E.); (R.K.)
| | - Martin Sundqvist
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden; (P.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Patrik Ellström
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene Uppsala University, Akademiska Sjukhuset Entrance 40 Floor 5, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; (J.H.); (J.L.); (P.E.); (R.K.)
| | - René Kaden
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene Uppsala University, Akademiska Sjukhuset Entrance 40 Floor 5, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; (J.H.); (J.L.); (P.E.); (R.K.)
- SciLifeLab, Clinical Genomics Uppsala, Husargatan 3, 752 37 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene Uppsala University, Akademiska Sjukhuset Entrance 40 Floor 5, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; (J.H.); (J.L.); (P.E.); (R.K.)
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Mannsverk S, Bergholm J, Palanisamy N, Ellström P, Kaden R, Lindh J, Lennerstrand J. SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern and spike protein mutational dynamics in a Swedish cohort during 2021, studied by Nanopore sequencing. Virol J 2022; 19:164. [PMID: 36258215 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-022-01896-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, new variants of significance to public health have emerged. Consequently, early detection of new mutations and variants through whole-genome sequencing remains crucial to assist health officials in employing appropriate public health measures. METHODS We utilized the ARTIC Network SARS-CoV-2 tiled amplicon approach and Nanopore sequencing to sequence 4,674 COVID-19 positive patient samples from Uppsala County, Sweden, between week 15 and 52 in 2021. Using this data, we mapped the circulating variants of concern (VOC) in the county over time and analysed the Spike (S) protein mutational dynamics in the Delta variant throughout 2021. RESULTS The distribution of the SARS-CoV-2 VOC matched the national VOC distribution in Sweden, in 2021. In the S protein of the Delta variant, we detected mutations attributable to variants under monitoring and variants of interest (e.g., E484Q, Q613H, Q677H, A222V and Y145H) and future VOC (e.g., T95I and Y144 deletion, which are signature mutations in the Omicron variant). We also frequently detected some less well-described S protein mutations in our Delta sequences, that might play a role in shaping future emerging variants. These include A262S, Q675K, I850L, Q1201H, V1228L and M1237I. Lastly, we observed that some of the Delta variant's signature mutations were underrepresented in our study due to artifacts of the used bioinformatics tools, approach and sequencing method. We therefore discuss some pitfalls and considerations when sequencing SARS-CoV-2 genomes. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that genomic surveillance in a small, representative cohort can be used to make predictions about the circulating variants nationally. Moreover, we show that detection of transient mutations in currently circulating variants can give valuable clues to signature mutations of future VOC. Here we suggest six such mutations, that we detected frequently in the Delta variant during 2021. Lastly, we report multiple systematic errors that occurred when following the ARTIC Network SARS-CoV-2 tiled amplicon approach using the V3 primers and Nanopore sequencing, which led to the masking of some of the important signature mutations in the Delta sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steinar Mannsverk
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, 752 37, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julia Bergholm
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Patrik Ellström
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - René Kaden
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lindh
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section for Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden.
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3
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Luttens A, Gullberg H, Abdurakhmanov E, Vo DD, Akaberi D, Talibov VO, Nekhotiaeva N, Vangeel L, De Jonghe S, Jochmans D, Krambrich J, Tas A, Lundgren B, Gravenfors Y, Craig AJ, Atilaw Y, Sandström A, Moodie LWK, Lundkvist Å, van Hemert MJ, Neyts J, Lennerstrand J, Kihlberg J, Sandberg K, Danielson UH, Carlsson J. Ultralarge Virtual Screening Identifies SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease Inhibitors with Broad-Spectrum Activity against Coronaviruses. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:2905-2920. [PMID: 35142215 PMCID: PMC8848513 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c08402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Drugs targeting SARS-CoV-2 could have saved millions of lives during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is now crucial to develop inhibitors of coronavirus replication in preparation for future outbreaks. We explored two virtual screening strategies to find inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease in ultralarge chemical libraries. First, structure-based docking was used to screen a diverse library of 235 million virtual compounds against the active site. One hundred top-ranked compounds were tested in binding and enzymatic assays. Second, a fragment discovered by crystallographic screening was optimized guided by docking of millions of elaborated molecules and experimental testing of 93 compounds. Three inhibitors were identified in the first library screen, and five of the selected fragment elaborations showed inhibitory effects. Crystal structures of target-inhibitor complexes confirmed docking predictions and guided hit-to-lead optimization, resulting in a noncovalent main protease inhibitor with nanomolar affinity, a promising in vitro pharmacokinetic profile, and broad-spectrum antiviral effect in infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Luttens
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hjalmar Gullberg
- Science for Life Laboratory, Biochemical and Cellular Assay Facility, Drug Discovery and Development Platform, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Solna, SE-17121 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eldar Abdurakhmanov
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Duy Duc Vo
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-75124 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Dario Akaberi
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Natalia Nekhotiaeva
- Science for Life Laboratory, Biochemical and Cellular Assay Facility, Drug Discovery and Development Platform, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Solna, SE-17121 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Laura Vangeel
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.,Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Steven De Jonghe
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.,Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Dirk Jochmans
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.,Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Janina Krambrich
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ali Tas
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bo Lundgren
- Science for Life Laboratory, Biochemical and Cellular Assay Facility, Drug Discovery and Development Platform, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Solna, SE-17121 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ylva Gravenfors
- Science for Life Laboratory, Drug Discovery & Development Platform, Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, SE-17121 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Alexander J Craig
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Yoseph Atilaw
- Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anja Sandström
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lindon W K Moodie
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden.,Uppsala Antibiotic Centre, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Martijn J van Hemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Neyts
- KU Leuven, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.,Global Virus Network, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jan Kihlberg
- Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kristian Sandberg
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden.,Science for Life Laboratory, Drug Discovery & Development Platform, Uppsala Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - U Helena Danielson
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Chemistry-BMC, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jens Carlsson
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, SE-75124 Uppsala, Sweden
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Howe AY, Rodrigo C, Cunningham E, Douglas MW, Dietz J, Grebely J, Popping S, Sfalcin JA, Parczewski M, Sarrazin C, de Salazar A, Fuentes A, Sayan M, Quer J, Kjellin M, Kileng H, Mor O, Lennerstrand J, Fourati S, di Maio VC, Chulanov V, Pawlotsky JM, Harrigan PR, Ceccherini-Silberstein F, Garcia F, Martinello M, Matthews G, Fernando FF, Esteban JI, Müllhaupt B, Wiesch JSZ, Buggisch P, Neumann-Haefelin C, Berg T, Berg CP, Schattenberg JM, Moreno C, Stauber R, Lloyd A, Dore G, Applegate T, Ignacio J, Garcia-Cehic D, Gregori J, Rodriguez-Frias F, Rando A, Angelico M, Andreoni M, Babudieri S, Bertoli A, Cento V, Coppola N, Craxì A, Paolucci S, Parruti G, Pasquazzi C, Perno CF, Teti E, Vironet C, Lannergård A, Duberg AS, Aleman S, Gutteberg T, Soulier A, Gourgeon A, Chevaliez S, Pol S, Carrat F, Salmon D, Kaiser R, Knopes E, Gomes P, de Kneght R, Rijnders B, Poljak M, Lunar M, Usubillaga R, Seguin C, Tay E, Wilson C, Wang DS, George J, Kok J, Pérez AB, Chueca N, García-Deltoro M, Martínez-Sapiña AM, Lara-Pérez MM, García-Bujalance S, Aldámiz-Echevarría T, Vera-Méndez FJ, Pineda JA, Casado M, Pascasio JM, Salmerón J, Alados-Arboledas JC, Poyato A, Téllez F, Rivero-Juárez A, Merino D, Vivancos-Gallego MJ, Rosales-Zábal JM, Ocete MD, Simón MÁ, Rincón P, Reus S, De la Iglesia A, García-Arata I, Jiménez M, Jiménez F, Hernández-Quero J, Galera C, Balghata MO, Primo J, Masiá M, Espinosa N, Delgado M, von-Wichmann MÁ, Collado A, Santos J, Mínguez C, Díaz-Flores F, Fernández E, Bernal E, De Juan J, Antón JJ, Vélez M, Aguilera A, Navarro D, Arenas JI, Fernández C, Espinosa MD, Ríos MJ, Alonso R, Hidalgo C, Hernández R, Téllez MJ, Rodríguez FJ, Antequera P, Delgado C, Martín P, Crespo J, Becerril B, Pérez O, García-Herola A, Montero J, Freyre C, Grau C, Cabezas J, Jimenez M, Rodriguez MAM, Quilez C, Pardo MR, Muñoz-Medina L, Figueruela B. Characteristics of hepatitis C virus resistance in an international cohort after a decade of direct-acting antivirals. JHEP Rep 2022; 4:100462. [PMID: 35434589 PMCID: PMC9010635 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2022.100462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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5
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Lennerstrand J, Svensson L, Lundkvist Å. [How did Omicron evolve and why does this SARS-CoV-2 variant spread so fast?]. Lakartidningen 2022; 119:21242. [PMID: 35041755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Omicron has more than twenty new mutations in the S1 domain of the spike gene as compared to the other previously known variants of SARS-CoV-2. Many of these new mutations, especially those located in the receptor binding domain, are likely to improve binding to the ACE2 receptor and to avoid binding to antibodies induced by a previous infection or by vaccination. Today there are several different hypotheses about the origin of Omicron, for example that it would have arisen in an immunosuppressed individual. Alternatively, a SARS-CoV-2 variant could have infected an unknown animal, and re-infection of humans would then have occurred. Furthermore, Omicron may have picked up a piece of a human common cold coronavirus. The hitherto available data suggest that the rapid spread of Omicron is a combination of properties of the virus replication ability in addition to its ability to avoid pre-existing immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lennerstrand
- docent i virologi, mikrobiolog, institutionen för medicinska vetenskaper, avdelningen för klinisk mikrobiologi, Zoonosis Science Center (ZSC), Uppsala universitet
| | - Lennart Svensson
- professor i virologi, institutionen för biomedicinska och kliniska vetenskaper, avdelningen för molekylär medicin och virologi, Linköpings universitet; institutionen för medi-cin, avdelningen för infektionssjukdomar, Karolinska institutet
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- professor i virologi, institutionen för medicinsk biokemi och mikrobiologi, Zoonosis Science Center (ZSC), Uppsala universitet
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6
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Lennerstrand J, Palanisamy N. Global Prevalence of Adaptive and Prolonged Infections' Mutations in the Receptor-Binding Domain of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein. Viruses 2021; 13:1974. [PMID: 34696404 PMCID: PMC8538289 DOI: 10.3390/v13101974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Several vaccines with varying efficacies have been developed and are currently administered globally to minimize the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite having an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase with a proofreading activity, new variants of SARS-CoV-2 are on the rise periodically. Some of the mutations in these variants, especially mutations on the spike protein, aid the virus in transmission, infectivity and host immune evasion. Further, these mutations also reduce the effectiveness of some of the current vaccines and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). In the present study, using the available 984,769 SARS-CoV-2 nucleotide sequences on the NCBI database from the end of 2019 till 28 July 2021, we have estimated the global prevalence of so-called 'adaptive mutations' and 'mutations identified in the prolonged infections', in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike (S) protein. Irrespective of the geographical region, in the case of the adaptive mutations, N501Y (48.38%) was found to be the dominant mutation followed by L452R (17.52%), T478K (14.31%), E484K (4.69%), S477N (3.29%), K417T (1.64%), N439K (0.7%) and S494P (0.7%). Other mutations were found to be less prevalent (less than 0.7%). Since the last two months, there has been a massive increase of L452R and T478K mutations (delta variant) in certain areas. In the case of prolonged infections' mutations (long-term SARS-CoV-2 infections), V483A (0.009%) was found to be dominant followed by Q493R (0.009%), while other mutations were found in less than 0.007% of the studied sequences. The data obtained in this study will aid in the development of better infection control policies, thereby curbing the spread of this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden;
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7
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Howe AY, Ceccherini-Silberstein F, Dietz J, Popping S, Grebely J, Rodrigo C, Lennerstrand J, Douglas MW, Parczewsk M, Harrigan PR, Pawlotsky JM, Garcia F, Collaborators SHARED. SHARED: An International Collaboration to Unravel Hepatitis C Resistance. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081580. [PMID: 34452444 PMCID: PMC8402898 DOI: 10.3390/v13081580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anita Y.M. Howe
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4R4, Canada
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Julia Dietz
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, University Hospital, Goethe University, 65926 Frankfurt, Germany;
| | | | - Jason Grebely
- The Kirby Institute, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Chaturaka Rodrigo
- Department of Pathology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University, 75121 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - Mark W. Douglas
- Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, The University of Sydney at Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia;
| | - Milosz Parczewsk
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Immune Deficiency, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 70-507 Szczecin, Poland;
| | - P. Richard Harrigan
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4R4, Canada;
| | - Jean-Michel Pawlotsky
- National Reference Center for Viral Hepatitis B, C and D, Department of Virology, Henri Mondor Hospital & INSERM U955, 94000 Créteil, France;
| | - Federico Garcia
- Microbiology Department, University Hospital San Cecilio, Instituto de Investigacion Ibs.Granada, 18012 Granada, Spain;
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8
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Akaberi D, Båhlström A, Chinthakindi PK, Nyman T, Sandström A, Järhult JD, Palanisamy N, Lundkvist Å, Lennerstrand J. Targeting the NS2B-NS3 protease of tick-borne encephalitis virus with pan-flaviviral protease inhibitors. Antiviral Res 2021; 190:105074. [PMID: 33872674 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a severe neurological disorder caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a member of the Flavivirus genus. Currently, two vaccines are available in Europe against TBEV. However, TBE cases have been rising in Sweden for the past twenty years, and thousands of cases are reported in Europe, emphasizing the need for antiviral treatments against this virus. The NS2B-NS3 protease is essential for flaviviral life cycle and has been studied as a target for the design of inhibitors against several well-known flaviviruses, but not TBEV. In the present study, Compound 86, a known tripeptidic inhibitor of dengue (DENV), West Nile (WNV) and Zika (ZIKV) proteases, was predicted to be active against TBEV protease using a combination of in silico techniques. Further, Compound 86 was found to inhibit recombinant TBEV protease with an IC50 = 0.92 μM in the in vitro enzymatic assay. Additionally, two more peptidic analogues were synthetized and they displayed inhibitory activities against both TBEV and ZIKV proteases. In particular, Compound 104 inhibited ZIKV protease with an IC50 = 0.25 μM. These compounds represent the first reported inhibitors of TBEV protease to date and provides valuable information for the further development of TBEV as well as pan-flavivirus protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Akaberi
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Amanda Båhlström
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Praveen K Chinthakindi
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tomas Nyman
- Protein Science Facility, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anja Sandström
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Josef D Järhult
- Department of Medical Sciences, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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9
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Akaberi D, Krambrich J, Ling J, Luni C, Hedenstierna G, Järhult JD, Lennerstrand J, Lundkvist Å. Mitigation of the replication of SARS-CoV-2 by nitric oxide in vitro. Redox Biol 2020; 37:101734. [PMID: 33007504 PMCID: PMC7505071 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is a global public health emergency posing a high burden on nations' health care systems and economies. Despite the great effort put in the development of vaccines and specific treatments, no prophylaxis or effective therapeutics are currently available. Nitric oxide (NO) is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial and a potent vasodilator that has proved to be effective in reducing SARS-CoV replication and hypoxia in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Given the potential of NO as treatment for SARS-CoV-2 infection, we have evaluated the in vitro antiviral effect of NO on SARS-CoV-2 replication. The NO-donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) had a dose dependent inhibitory effect on SARS-CoV-2 replication, while the non S-nitrosated NAP was not active, as expected. Although the viral replication was not completely abolished (at 200 μM and 400 μM), SNAP delayed or completely prevented the development of viral cytopathic effect in treated cells, and the observed protective effect correlated with the level of inhibition of the viral replication. The capacity of the NO released from SNAP to covalently bind and inhibit SARS-CoV-2 3CL recombinant protease in vitro was also tested. The observed reduction in SARS-CoV-2 protease activity was consistent with S-nitrosation of the enzyme active site cysteine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Akaberi
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Janina Krambrich
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jiaxin Ling
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Chen Luni
- Department of Microbiology and Tumour and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | - Göran Hedenstierna
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Physiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Josef D Järhult
- Department of Medical Sciences, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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10
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Akaberi D, Chinthakindi PK, Båhlström A, Palanisamy N, Sandström A, Lundkvist Å, Lennerstrand J. Identification of a C2-symmetric diol based human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor targeting Zika virus NS2B-NS3 protease. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2019; 38:5526-5536. [PMID: 31880199 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2019.1704882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus and infection by ZIKV Asian lineage is known to cause fetal brain anomalies and Guillain-Barrés syndrome. The WHO declared ZIKV a global public health emergency in 2016. However, currently neither vaccines nor antiviral prophylaxis/treatments are available. In this study, we report the identification of a C2-symmetric diol-based Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV) protease inhibitor active against ZIKV NS2B-NS3 protease. The compound, referred to as 9b, was identified by in silico screening of a library of 6265 protease inhibitors. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies revealed that compound 9b formed a stable complex with ZIKV protease. Interaction analysis of compound 9b's binding pose from the cluster analysis of MD simulations trajectories predicted that 9b mostly interacted with ZIKV NS3. Although designed as an aspartyl protease inhibitor, compound 9b was found to inhibit ZIKV serine protease in vitro with IC50 = 143.25 ± 5.45 µM, in line with the in silico results. Additionally, linear interaction energy method (LIE) was used to estimate binding affinities of compounds 9b and 86 (a known panflavivirus peptide hybrid with IC50 = 1.64 ± 0.015 µM against ZIKV protease). The LIE method correctly predicted the binding affinity of compound 86 to be lower than that of 9b, proving to be superior to the molecular docking methods in scoring and ranking compounds. Since most of the reported ZIKV protease inhibitors are positively charged peptide-hybrids, with our without electrophilic warheads, compound 9b represents a less polar and more drug-like non-peptide hit compound useful for further optimization.Communicated by Ramaswamy Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Akaberi
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden.,Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Praveen K Chinthakindi
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Amanda Båhlström
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Navaneethan Palanisamy
- HBIGS, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anja Sandström
- The Beijer Laboratory, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Drug Design and Discovery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Palanisamy N, Kalaghatgi P, Akaberi D, Lundkvist Å, Chen ZW, Hu P, Lennerstrand J. Worldwide prevalence of baseline resistance-associated polymorphisms and resistance mutations in HCV against current direct-acting antivirals. Antivir Ther 2019; 23:485-493. [PMID: 29745936 DOI: 10.3851/imp3237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND HCV infections can now be completely cured, thanks to the currently marketed direct-acting antivirals (DAAs). It is known that HCV patients carry viral populations with baseline polymorphisms and/or mutations that make them resistant against some of these DAAs, which can negatively impact the patient's treatment outcome. Using complete HCV coding sequences isolated from 1,306 treatment-naive patients of genotypes (GTs) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 from around the globe, we studied the prevalence of baseline resistance-associated polymorphisms (RAPs) and resistance mutations (RMs) against DAAs that are currently on the market or in clinical trials. METHODS The HCV genome sequences used in this study were retrieved from the NCBI database. RAPs and RMs, with reference to HCV GT1a, were identified using the HCV Geno2pheno web server. RESULTS Nearly 50% of the total amino acid positions (including NS3 protease, NS5A and NS5B) studied are baseline polymorphisms that differentiated one GT from the rest. A proportion of these baseline polymorphisms and baseline non-polymorphic RMs could confer a significant increase in resistance against DAAs. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we show the presence and prevalence of RAPs and RMs in DAA treatment-naive patients against currently used DAAs or DAAs in clinical trials. Our study suggests that RAPs and RMs profiling of HCV patients should be performed before the start of the therapy. Our results should be relevant especially in low- and middle-income countries, where the patients have a large variation of GTs and subtypes, and where the generic HCV treatment is now increasingly available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navaneethan Palanisamy
- HBIGS, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Molecular and Cellular Engineering Group, BioQuant, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Prabhav Kalaghatgi
- Computational Biology and Applied Algorithmics, Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dario Akaberi
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Zhi-Wei Chen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Viral Hepatitis, The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Infectious Diseases, Chinese Ministry of Education, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng Hu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute for Viral Hepatitis, The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Infectious Diseases, Chinese Ministry of Education, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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12
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Kjellin M, Kileng H, Akaberi D, Palanisamy N, Duberg AS, Danielsson A, Kristiansen MG, Nöjd J, Aleman S, Gutteberg T, Goll R, Lannergård A, Lennerstrand J. Effect of the baseline Y93H resistance-associated substitution in HCV genotype 3 for direct-acting antiviral treatment: real-life experience from a multicenter study in Sweden and Norway. Scand J Gastroenterol 2019; 54:1042-1050. [PMID: 31424972 DOI: 10.1080/00365521.2019.1652846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Background: The NS5A resistance-associated substitution (RAS) Y93H is found quite frequently (5-10%) at baseline in direct-acting antiviral agents (DAA) treatment-naïve genotype (GT) 3a patients when studied by the population-sequencing method (cut-off 20%). This RAS may impair HCV DAA treatment response, since it possesses a high fold in vitro resistance to daclatasvir (DCV) and velpatasvir (VEL) in GT 3. We investigated the effect of baseline Y93H in patients with GT 3a infection on treatment outcome, with or without resistance-based DAA-treatment during 2014-2017. Patients/Methods: Treatment in the intervention group (n = 130) was tailored to baseline resistance-findings by population-sequencing method. Detection of baseline Y93H above 20% prompted a prolonged treatment duration of NS5A-inhibitor and sofosbuvir (SOF) and/or addition of ribavirin (RBV). Patients without baseline Y93H in the intervention group and all patients in the control group (n = 78) received recommended standard DAA-treatment. Results: A higher sustained virologic response rate (SVR) in the intervention group was shown compared to the control group at 95.4% (124/130) and 88.5% (69/78), respectively (p = .06). All five patients with baseline Y93H in the intervention group achieved SVR with personalised treatment based on results from resistance testing; either with the addition of RBV or prolonged treatment duration (24w). In the control group, 2/4 patients with Y93H at baseline treated with ledipasvir/SOF/RBV or DCV/SOF without RBV, failed treatment. Conclusion: The results from this real-life study are in accordance with the findings of the randomised controlled trials in 2015 and the EASL-guidelines of 2016, thus, baseline Y93H impacts on DCV and VEL treatment outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midori Kjellin
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Hege Kileng
- Gastroenterology and Nutrition Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT the Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,Department of Medicine, University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Dario Akaberi
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Navaneethan Palanisamy
- HBIGS, University of Heidelberg , Heidelberg , Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
| | - Ann-Sofi Duberg
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University , Örebro , Sweden
| | | | - Magnhild Gangsøy Kristiansen
- Nordlandssykehuset Bodø, Department of Clinical Medicine (IKM), UiT the Artic University of Tromsø , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Johan Nöjd
- Nordlandssykehuset Bodø, Department of Clinical Medicine (IKM), UiT the Artic University of Tromsø , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Soo Aleman
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital/Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Tore Gutteberg
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Rasmus Goll
- Gastroenterology and Nutrition Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT the Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,Department of Medicine, University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Anders Lannergård
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University Hospital , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology, Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
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13
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Kileng H, Kjellin M, Akaberi D, Bergfors A, Duberg AS, Wesslén L, Danielsson A, Gangsøy Kristiansen M, Gutteberg T, Goll R, Lannergård A, Lennerstrand J. Personalized treatment of hepatitis C genotype 1a in Norway and Sweden 2014-2016: a study of treatment outcome in patients with or without resistance-based DAA-therapy. Scand J Gastroenterol 2019; 53:1347-1353. [PMID: 30394152 DOI: 10.1080/00365521.2018.1511824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) may impair treatment response to direct-acting antivirals (DAA) in hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment. We investigated the effects of baseline NS3-RASs (Q80K and R155K) and clinically relevant NS5A-RASs in patients with HCV genotype (GT) 1a infection on treatment outcome, with or without resistance-based DAA-treatment. This multi-center study was carried out between 2014 and 2016. PATIENTS/METHODS Treatment in the intervention group (n = 92) was tailored to baseline resistance. Detection of NS3-RAS led to an NS5A-inhibitor-based regimen and detection of NS5A-RAS to a protease-inhibitor regimen. Patients without baseline RAS in the intervention group and all patients in the control group (n = 101) received recommended standard DAA-treatment. RESULTS The sustained virologic response rates (SVR) in the intervention and control groups were 97.8% (90/92) and 93.1% (94/101), respectively (p = .174). A trend toward higher SVR-rate in cirrhotic patients (p = .058) was noticed in the intervention group compared to the control group with SVR-rates 97.5% (39/40) and 83.3% (35/42), respectively. All patients with baseline NS3 (Q80K/R155K) or NS5A-RASs in the intervention group achieved SVR with personalized resistance-based treatment. In the control group, five patients with Q80K or R155K at baseline were treated with simeprevir + sofosbuvir and treatment failed in two of them. Furthermore, one of three patients who failed ledipasvir + sofosbuvir treatment had NS5A-RASs at baseline. CONCLUSIONS In line with the findings of the OPTIMIST-2 trial for Q80K and the EASL-guidelines 2016 for NS5A-RASs, baseline RASs appeared to have an impact on treatment outcome albeit a statistical significance was not observed in this low-prevalence population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hege Kileng
- a Department of Clinical Medicine, Gastroenterology and Nutrition Research Group , UiT The Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,b Department of Medicine , University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Midori Kjellin
- c Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology , Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Dario Akaberi
- c Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology , Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Assar Bergfors
- c Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology , Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Ann-Sofi Duberg
- d Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health , Örebro University , Örebro , Sweden
| | | | | | | | - Tore Gutteberg
- h Department of Medical Biology, Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions , UiT The Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,i Department of Microbiology and Infection Control , University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Rasmus Goll
- a Department of Clinical Medicine, Gastroenterology and Nutrition Research Group , UiT The Arctic University of Norway , Tromsø , Norway.,b Department of Medicine , University Hospital of North Norway , Tromsø , Norway
| | - Anders Lannergård
- j Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases , Uppsala University Hospital , Uppsala , Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- c Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Clinical Microbiology , Uppsala University , Uppsala , Sweden
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Akaberi D, Bergfors A, Kjellin M, Kameli N, Lidemalm L, Kolli B, Shafer RW, Palanisamy N, Lennerstrand J. Baseline dasabuvir resistance in Hepatitis C virus from the genotypes 1, 2 and 3 and modeling of the NS5B-dasabuvir complex by the in silico approach. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2018; 8:1528117. [PMID: 30319736 PMCID: PMC6179053 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2018.1528117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Current combination treatments with direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs) can cure more than 95% of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. However, resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) may emerge and can also be present in treatment-naïve patients. Methods, results and discussion: In this study, a semi-pan-genotypic population sequencing method was developed and used to assess all NS5B amino acid variants between residue positions 310 and 564. Our method successfully sequenced more than 90% of genotype (GT) 1a, 1b, 2b and 3a samples. By using the population sequencing method with a cut-off of 20%, we found the dasabuvir RASs A553V and C445F to be a baseline polymorphism of GT 2b (8 out of 8) and GT 3a (18 out of 18) sequences, respectively. In GT 1a and 1b treatment-naïve subjects (n=25), no high-fold resistance polymorphism/RASs were identified. We further predicted dasabuvir’s binding pose with the NS5B polymerase using the in silico methods to elucidate the reasons associated with the resistance of clinically relevant RASs. Dasabuvir was docked at the palm-I site and was found to form hydrogen bonds with the residues S288, I447, Y448, N291 and D318. The RAS positions 316, 414, 448, 553 and 556 were found to constitute the dasabuvir binding pocket.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Akaberi
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Assar Bergfors
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Midori Kjellin
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nader Kameli
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM school of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Louise Lidemalm
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Bhavya Kolli
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Robert W Shafer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Navaneethan Palanisamy
- HBIGS, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute of Biology II, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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15
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Palanisamy N, Akaberi D, Lennerstrand J, Lundkvist Å. Comparative genome analysis of Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus with Kyasanur forest disease and tick-borne encephalitis viruses by the in silico approach. Pathog Glob Health 2018; 112:210-226. [PMID: 29745301 PMCID: PMC6151960 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2018.1471187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus (AHFV), a relatively new member of the Flaviviruses, was discovered in Saudi Arabia 23 years ago. AHFV is classified in the tick-borne encephalitis virus serocomplex, along with the Kyasanur forest disease virus (KFDV) and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Currently, very little is known about the pathologies of AHFV. In this study, using the available genome information of AHFV, KFDV and TBEV, we have predicted and compared the following aspects of these viruses: evolution, nucleotide and protein compositions, recombination, codon frequency, substitution rate, N- and O-glycosylation sites, signal peptide and cleavage site, transmembrane region, secondary structure of 5' and 3' UTRs and RNA-RNA interactions. Additionally, we have modeled the 3D protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase structures for AHFV, KFDV and TBEV. Recombination analysis showed no evidence of recombination in the AHFV genome with that of either KFDV or TBEV, although single break point analysis showed that nucleotide position 7399 (in the NS4B) is a breakpoint location. AHFV, KFDV and TBEV are very similar in terms of codon frequency, the number of transmembrane regions, properties of the polyprotein, RNA-RNA interaction sequences, NS3 protease and NS5 polymerase structures and 5' UTR structure. Using genome sequences, we showed the similarities between these closely- related viruses on several different areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navaneethan Palanisamy
- Molecular and Cellular Engineering Group, University of Freiburg, Institute of Biology II, Freiburg, Germany
- The Hartmut Hoffmann-Berling International Graduate School of Molecular and Cellular Biology (HBIGS), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dario Akaberi
- Section of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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16
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Kjellin M, Wesslén T, Löfblad E, Lennerstrand J, Lannergård A. The effect of the first-generation HCV-protease inhibitors boceprevir and telaprevir and the relation to baseline NS3 resistance mutations in genotype 1: experience from a small Swedish cohort. Ups J Med Sci 2018; 123. [PMID: 29536805 PMCID: PMC5901468 DOI: 10.1080/03009734.2018.1441928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The clinical experience with protease-inhibitor (PI) triple regimen appears disappointing regarding effect, side effects, high work load, and costs. This real-world study evaluates baseline and emerging resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) and their significance for treatment outcome. METHOD Thirty-six genotype 1a/b patients treated according to Swedish recommendations during 2011-2013 with triple therapy including pegylated interferon and ribavirin in combination with a protease-inhibitor, either boceprevir (BOC) or telaprevir (TVR), were retrospectively evaluated. Frozen serum samples from the patients were tested for resistance with pan-genotypic population sequencing. RESULTS Overall, 56% (20/36) of the patients achieved sustained viral response (SVR). The SVR was comparable between BOC (64%; 9/14) and TVR (50%; 11/22) (p = 0.07), and the IL28B type non-CC (48%; 12/25) and CC (46%; 6/13) (p = 0.77). The SVR was higher in patients without cirrhosis (89.5%; 17/19) (p < 0.0005), in treatment-naïve patients (70%; 14/20) (p = 0.02), and those with low viral load (<800,000 IU/mL) (66.7%; 8/12) (p < 0.0002), compared to those with cirrhosis (17.6%; 3/17), treatment-experienced (37.5%; 6/16), and high viral load (>800,000 IU/mL) (50%; 12/24). CONCLUSION PI triple regimes were highly effective in treatment-naïve patients without cirrhosis, but in this real-world cohort an inferior effect was evident in cirrhotic and treatment-experienced patients. Although tested on a limited sample, the baseline resistance testing seems to have no impact on prediction of therapy outcome. The reason could be that the baseline RASs T54S and V55A have relatively low resistance towards BOC and TVR. Emerging RASs, mainly R155K, with known high resistance to BOC and TVR were frequently found in non-responders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midori Kjellin
- Section of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Terése Wesslén
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Erik Löfblad
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
| | - Anders Lannergård
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden
- CONTACT Anders Lannergård Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Infectious Diseases, Uppsala University, S 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
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17
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Palanisamy N, Akaberi D, Lennerstrand J. Protein backbone flexibility pattern is evolutionarily conserved in the Flaviviridae family: A case of NS3 protease in Flavivirus and Hepacivirus. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2018; 118:58-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 09/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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18
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Palanisamy N, Lennerstrand J. Computational Prediction of Usutu Virus E Protein B Cell and T Cell Epitopes for Potential Vaccine Development. Scand J Immunol 2017; 85:350-364. [PMID: 28273384 DOI: 10.1111/sji.12544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Usutu virus (family Flaviviridae), once confined to Africa, has emerged in Europe a decade ago. The virus has been spreading throughout Europe at a greater pace mostly affecting avian species. While most bird species remain asymptomatic carriers of this virus, few bird species are highly susceptible. Lately, Usutu virus (USUV) infections in humans were reported sporadically with severe neuroinvasive symptoms like meningoencephalitis. As so much is unknown about this virus, which potentially may cause severe diseases in humans, there is a need for more studies of this virus. In this study, we have used computational tools to predict potential B cell and T cell epitopes of USUV envelope (E) protein. We found that amino acids between positions 68 and 84 could be a potential B cell epitope, while amino acids between positions 53 and 69 could be a potential major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I- and class II-restricted T cell epitope. By homology 3D modeling of USUV E protein, we found that the predicted B cell epitope was predominantly located in the coil region, while T cell epitope was located in the beta-strand region of the E protein. Additionally, the potential MHC class I T cell epitope (LAEVRSYCYL) was predicted to bind to nearly 24 human leucocyte antigens (HLAs) (IC50 ≤5000 nm) covering nearly 86.44% of the Black population and 96.90% of the Caucasoid population. Further in vivo studies are needed to validate the predicted epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Palanisamy
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Bartlett SR, Grebely J, Eltahla AA, Reeves JD, Howe AYM, Miller V, Ceccherini-Silberstein F, Bull RA, Douglas MW, Dore GJ, Harrington P, Lloyd AR, Jacka B, Matthews GV, Wang GP, Pawlotsky JM, Feld JJ, Schinkel J, Garcia F, Lennerstrand J, Applegate TL. Sequencing of hepatitis C virus for detection of resistance to direct-acting antiviral therapy: A systematic review. Hepatol Commun 2017; 1:379-390. [PMID: 29404466 PMCID: PMC5721421 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The significance of the clinical impact of direct‐acting antiviral (DAA) resistance‐associated substitutions (RASs) in hepatitis C virus (HCV) on treatment failure is unclear. No standardized methods or guidelines for detection of DAA RASs in HCV exist. To facilitate further evaluations of the impact of DAA RASs in HCV, we conducted a systematic review of RAS sequencing protocols, compiled a comprehensive public library of sequencing primers, and provided expert guidance on the most appropriate methods to screen and identify RASs. The development of standardized RAS sequencing protocols is complicated due to a high genetic variability and the need for genotype‐ and subtype‐specific protocols for multiple regions. We have identified several limitations of the available methods and have highlighted areas requiring further research and development. The development, validation, and sharing of standardized methods for all genotypes and subtypes should be a priority. (Hepatology Communications 2017;1:379–390)
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Grebely
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Auda A Eltahla
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Jacqueline D Reeves
- Monogram Biosciences, Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings South San Francisco CA
| | - Anita Y M Howe
- British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, St Paul's Hospital Vancouver Canada
| | - Veronica Miller
- Forum for Collaborative HIV Research University of California Berkeley Washington DC
| | | | - Rowena A Bull
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Mark W Douglas
- Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research University of Sydney Sydney Australia
| | - Gregory J Dore
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Patrick Harrington
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Division of Antiviral Products Silver Spring MD
| | - Andrew R Lloyd
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Brendan Jacka
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Gail V Matthews
- Kirby Institute University of New South Wales Sydney Australia
| | - Gary P Wang
- Department of Medicine University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL
| | - Jean-Michel Pawlotsky
- National Reference Center for Viral Hepatitis B, C, and D, Department of Virology and INSERM U955, Hopital Henri Mondor Université Paris-Est Creteil France
| | - Jordan J Feld
- Toronto Western Hospital Liver Centre, University Health Network University of Toronto Toronto Canada
| | - Janke Schinkel
- Department of Medical Microbiology Academic Medical Center Amsterdam the Netherlands
| | - Federico Garcia
- Clinical Microbiology Service Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Granada Granada Spain
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Science Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
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Miller V, Harrington P, Howe A, Kieffer T, Lennerstrand J, Lenz O, Lontok E, McPhee F, Mo H, Parkin N, Pilot-Matias T. Reply. Hepatology 2016; 64:698-9. [PMID: 27113118 DOI: 10.1002/hep.28615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Miller
- Forum for Collaborative HIV Research, University of California at Berkeley, Washington, DC
| | - Patrick Harrington
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Antimicrobial Products, Division of Antiviral Products, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD
| | - Anita Howe
- BC Center for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | | | - Oliver Lenz
- Janssen Infectious Diseases, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Erik Lontok
- Center for Strategic Philanthropy, A Center of the Milken Institute, Washington, DC
| | - Fiona McPhee
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Wallingford, CT
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Gronowitz JS, Lennerstrand J, Petterson A, Neumüller M, Johansson M, Kältender CFR. Determination of IC50 Values and the Mechanism of Action of HIV-1 RT Inhibitors, by the Use of Carrier Bound Template-Primer, Template, or Primer, with 125I-IUTP as Substrate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/095632029200300403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A novel reverse transcriptase (RT) assay based on the combined use of macrobead-bound template and 125I-iododeoxyuridine-triphosphate (IUTP) was used to determine the IC50 values of various RT inhibitors. The results showed that this assay and the conventional assay gave similar IC50 values. The introduction of carrier bound template-primer, template, or primer also made it possible to design assays revealing the mechanism of action of various RT inhibitors. Unlabelled inhibitor substance could be incubated with carrier bound template-primer in the presence of excess enzyme, after which the inhibitor was removed and the residual template-primer function was analysed by RT assay. By this procedure it was found that chain elongation terminators like 2′,3′-dideoxy-TTP and 3′-azido-TTP destroyed the template-primer at low concentrations which corresponded to the amount of primer. In contrast, 20–200 times higher concentrations were needed for template-primer destruction when using substances continuously incorporated into the DNA, such as IUTP or TTP. Further, an inhibitor such as phosphonoformic acid (PFA) did not affect the template-primer at all. By excluding the excess RT in the first incubation, it was possible to determine whether or not the template-primer destruction of a given substance was enzyme dependent. Another feature of the macrobead bound template-primer, template, or primer useful for elucidation of the mechanism of action of RT inhibitors is that it can be used to study the interference between an inhibitor and the RTs binding to the template-primer, template, or primer. Briefly, the bead carrying the substrate is incubated with RT in the absence or presence of various inhibitor concentrations, followed by thorough wash. After this the bound RT activity is determined. Such analyses showed that, in contrast to different nucleic acids and oligonucleotides, the classic RT inhibitors either did not interfere or only interfered weakly with the binding of RT to the carrier bound template-primer, template, or primer. Due to the technical simplicity of this novel RT assay it is a far better tool to rapidly screen RT inhibitors than conventional procedures used to date. Further, the use of carrier bound template-primer, template, or primer offers a unique and simple technology for analysis of the mechanisms of action of different RT inhibitors and for analysis of the characteristics of different RT isozymes and mutated RT.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. S. Gronowitz
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, the Biochemical Centre, Box 584, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J. Lennerstrand
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, the Biochemical Centre, Box 584, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
- Sangtec Medical AB, Box 20045, S-16120, Bromma, Sweden
| | - A. Petterson
- Medivir AB, Lunarstigen 7, 144 44 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - M. Neumüller
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, the Biochemical Centre, Box 584, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - M. Johansson
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, the Biochemical Centre, Box 584, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - C. F. R. Kältender
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, the Biochemical Centre, Box 584, Uppsala University, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Palanisamy N, Lennerstrand J. Biophysical Studies on HCV 1a NS3/4A Protease and Its Catalytic Triad in Wild Type and Mutants by the In Silico Approach. Interdiscip Sci 2016; 10:143-156. [PMID: 27311576 DOI: 10.1007/s12539-016-0177-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2015] [Revised: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The hepatitis C virus (HCV), of the family flaviviridae, is one of the major causes of chronic liver diseases. Until the year 2012, HCV infections were treated using PEG-interferon and ribavirin combinations, which have a low cure rate and severe side effects. Currently, many direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) are available, e.g. protease inhibitors, NS5A and polymerase inhibitors. These drugs have proven to be efficient in interferon-free treatment combinations and capable of enhancing the cure rate to above 90 %. Unlike PEG-interferon and ribavirin combinations, DAAs select for resistance in HCV. The R155K mutation in the HCV was found to resist all the currently available protease inhibitors. Here, we studied biophysical parameters like pocket (cavity) geometries and stabilizing residues of HCV 1a NS3/4A protease in wild type and mutants. We also studied HCV 1a NS3/4A protease's catalytic residues: their accessibility, energy, flexibility and binding to Phase II oral protease inhibitor vedroprevir (GS-9451), and compared these parameters between wild type and mutant(s). All these studies were performed using various bioinformatics tools (e.g. Swiss-PdbViewer and Schrödinger's Maestro) and web servers (e.g. DoGSiteScorer, SRide, ASA-View, WHAT IF, elNémo, CABS-flex, PatchDock and PLIP). From our study, we found that introduction of R155K, A156T or D168A mutation to wild-type NS3/4A protease increases the pocket's volume, surface (in the R155K mutant, surface decreases), lipo surface and depth and decreases the number of stabilizing residues. Additionally, differences in catalytic residues' solvent accessibility, energy, root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) and flexibility between wild type and mutants might explain changes in the protease activity and the resistance to protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navaneethan Palanisamy
- Synthetic Biology Group, Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology (IPMB), University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 267 (BioQuant), 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- The Hartmut Hoffmann-Berling International Graduate School of Molecular and Cellular Biology (HBIGS), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
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Lontok E, Harrington P, Howe A, Kieffer T, Lennerstrand J, Lenz O, McPhee F, Mo H, Parkin N, Pilot-Matias T, Miller V. Hepatitis C virus drug resistance-associated substitutions: State of the art summary. Hepatology 2015; 62:1623-32. [PMID: 26095927 DOI: 10.1002/hep.27934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Hepatitis C virus (HCV) drug development has resulted in treatment regimens composed of interferon-free, all-oral combinations of direct-acting antivirals. While the new regimens are potent and highly efficacious, the full clinical impact of HCV drug resistance, its implications for retreatment, and the potential role of baseline resistance testing remain critical research and clinical questions. In this report, we discuss the viral proteins targeted by HCV direct-acting antivirals and summarize clinically relevant resistance data for compounds that have been approved or are currently in phase 3 clinical trials. CONCLUSION This report provides a comprehensive, systematic review of all resistance information available from sponsors' trials as a tool to inform the HCV drug development field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Lontok
- Forum for Collaborative HIV Research, University of California at Berkeley, Washington, DC
| | - Patrick Harrington
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Antimicrobial Products, Division of Antiviral Products, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD
| | - Anita Howe
- Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA
| | | | | | - Oliver Lenz
- Janssen Infectious Diseases, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Fiona McPhee
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development, Wallingford, CT
| | | | | | | | - Veronica Miller
- Forum for Collaborative HIV Research, University of California at Berkeley, Washington, DC
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Lindström I, Kjellin M, Palanisamy N, Bondeson K, Wesslén L, Lannergard A, Lennerstrand J. Prevalence of polymorphisms with significant resistance to NS5A inhibitors in treatment-naive patients with hepatitis C virus genotypes 1a and 3a in Sweden. Infect Dis (Lond) 2015; 47:555-62. [PMID: 25851241 DOI: 10.3109/23744235.2015.1028097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The future treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection will be combinations of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) that not only target multiple viral targets, but are also effective against different HCV genotypes. Of the many drug targets in HCV, one promising target is the non-structural 5A protein (NS5A), against which inhibitors, namely daclatasvir, ledipasvir and ombitasvir, have shown potent efficacy. However, since HCV is known to have very high sequence diversity, development of resistance is a problem against but not limited to NS5A inhibitors (i.e. resistance also found against NS3-protease and NS5B non-nucleoside inhibitors), when used in suboptimal combinations. Furthermore, it has been shown that natural resistance against DAAs is present in treatment-naïve patients and such baseline resistance will potentially complicate future treatment strategies. METHODS A pan-genotypic population-sequencing method with degenerated primers targeting the NS5A region was developed. We have investigated the prevalence of baseline resistant variants in 127 treatment-naïve patients of HCV genotypes 1a, 1b, 2b and 3a. RESULTS The method could successfully sequence more than 95% of genotype 1a, 1b and 3a samples. Interpretation of fold resistance data against the NS5A inhibitors was done with the help of earlier published phenotypic data. Baseline resistance variants associated with high resistance (1000-50,000-fold) was found in three patients: Q30H or Y93N in genotype 1a patients and further Y93H in a genotype 3a patient. CONCLUSION Using this method, baseline resistance can be examined and the data could have a potential role in selecting the optimal and cost-efficient treatment for the patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Lindström
- From the 1 Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University , Uppsala
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25
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Danielsson A, Palanisamy N, Golbob S, Yin H, Blomberg J, Hedlund J, Sylvan S, Lennerstrand J. Transmission of hepatitis C virus among intravenous drug users in the Uppsala region of Sweden. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2014; 4:22251. [PMID: 24455107 PMCID: PMC3895264 DOI: 10.3402/iee.v4.22251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 11/28/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epidemiology and transmission patterns of hepatitis C virus (HCV) are important subjects as we enter a new era of treatment with directly acting antivirals (DAAs). The highest prevalence of HCV in developed countries is found among intravenous drug users (IDUs), where unsafe needle sharing practices provide the main route of infection. Efforts to prohibit the continuous spread of HCV among these groups have been initiated by the community services and health care providers. Our goal was to understand how HCV was transmitted among IDUs within a limited population group. We provide a retrospective study (2005–2007) of the HCV transmission patterns in a population of IDUs in the Uppsala region of Sweden. Method Eighty-two serum samples were collected from IDUs in Uppsala County. Our reverse transcription nested polymerase chain reaction (RT-nested PCR) and sequencing method enabled a comprehensive genetic analysis for a broad spectrum of genotypes of two relatively conserved regions, NS5B and NS3, that encodes for the viral polymerase and protease, respectively. HCV RNA in serum samples was amplified and sequenced with in-house primers. Sequence similarities between individuals and subgroups were analyzed with maximum likelihood (ML) phylogenetic trees. Published HCV reference sequences from other geographic regions and countries were also included for clarity. Results Phylogenetic analysis was possible for 59 NS5B (72%) and 29 NS3 (35%) sequences from Uppsala patients. Additionally, we also included 15 NS3 sequences from Örebro patients, making a total of 44 NS3 sequences for the analysis. By analyzing the NS3 sequences, two transmission sets were found between the IDUs (>98% sequence identity), with one set consisting of two individuals and another set consisting of three individuals. In addition, the phylogenetic analysis done with our serum samples displayed clusters that distinguished them from the reference sequences. Conclusion Our method seems to enable us to trace the HCV transmission between IDUs. Furthermore, the method is fairly independent of the time of infection because the method uses relatively conserved HCV sequence regions (i.e. NS5B and NS3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Danielsson
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Navaneethan Palanisamy
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sultan Golbob
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hong Yin
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonas Blomberg
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Hedlund
- Department of Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Uppsala County Council, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Staffan Sylvan
- Department of Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Uppsala County Council, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Stålhandske P, Wang L, Westberg S, von Euler H, Groth E, Gustafsson SA, Eriksson S, Lennerstrand J. Homogeneous assay for real-time and simultaneous detection of thymidine kinase 1 and deoxycytidine kinase activities. Anal Biochem 2012; 432:155-64. [PMID: 22902741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2012.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/04/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Measurement of thymidine kinase-1 (TK1) and deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) activity may be useful in cancer disease management. Therefore, a one-step homogeneous assay for real-time determination of TK1 and dCK was developed by combining enzyme complementation with fluorescent signal generation using primer extension and a quenched probe oligodeoxyribonucleotide system at 37 °C. Complementation, for producing dCTP and TTP from nucleoside substrates, was carried out by dTMP kinase and/or UMP/CMP kinase and nucleoside diphosphate kinase. dNTP was continuously incorporated into a fixed oligodeoxyribonucleotide primer, template, and probe system, and the fluorescent signal was generated by using the combined actions of primer extension and 5' exonuclease activity of Thermophilus aquaticus (Taq) DNA polymerase for specific relief of fluorescent quenching. Fluorescence was captured at 1-min intervals using a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) instrument. A horizontal threshold line, crossing all sample relative fluorescent units (RFU) values at the level of the RFU of the blank sample at the end of the assay (i.e., 90 min), was drawn, obtaining RFU measurement data in minutes for each sample. Duplex proof of principle was demonstrated by the independent determination of different amounts of dCK and TK1 in combination. R(2) values of 0.90 were demonstrated with Prolifigen TK-REA U/L reference values obtained from pathological canine and human serum samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Stålhandske
- Section of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Järhult JD, Muradrasoli S, Wahlgren J, Söderström H, Orozovic G, Gunnarsson G, Bröjer C, Latorre-Margalef N, Fick J, Grabic R, Lennerstrand J, Waldenström J, Lundkvist A, Olsen B. Environmental levels of the antiviral oseltamivir induce development of resistance mutation H274Y in influenza A/H1N1 virus in mallards. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24742. [PMID: 21931841 PMCID: PMC3171471 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Oseltamivir (Tamiflu®) is the most widely used drug against influenza infections and is extensively stockpiled worldwide as part of pandemic preparedness plans. However, resistance is a growing problem and in 2008–2009, seasonal human influenza A/H1N1 virus strains in most parts of the world carried the mutation H274Y in the neuraminidase gene which causes resistance to the drug. The active metabolite of oseltamivir, oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), is poorly degraded in sewage treatment plants and surface water and has been detected in aquatic environments where the natural influenza reservoir, dabbling ducks, can be exposed to the substance. To assess if resistance can develop under these circumstances, we infected mallards with influenza A/H1N1 virus and exposed the birds to 80 ng/L, 1 µg/L and 80 µg/L of OC through their sole water source. By sequencing the neuraminidase gene from fecal samples, we found that H274Y occurred at 1 µg/L of OC and rapidly dominated the viral population at 80 µg/L. IC50 for OC was increased from 2–4 nM in wild-type viruses to 400–700 nM in H274Y mutants as measured by a neuraminidase inhibition assay. This is consistent with the decrease in sensitivity to OC that has been noted among human clinical isolates carrying H274Y. Environmental OC levels have been measured to 58–293 ng/L during seasonal outbreaks and are expected to reach µg/L-levels during pandemics. Thus, resistance could be induced in influenza viruses circulating among wild ducks. As influenza viruses can cross species barriers, oseltamivir resistance could spread to human-adapted strains with pandemic potential disabling oseltamivir, a cornerstone in pandemic preparedness planning. We propose surveillance in wild birds as a measure to understand the resistance situation in nature and to monitor it over time. Strategies to lower environmental levels of OC include improved sewage treatment and, more importantly, a prudent use of antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef D Järhult
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Orozovic G, Orozovic K, Lennerstrand J, Olsen B. Detection of resistance mutations to antivirals oseltamivir and zanamivir in avian influenza A viruses isolated from wild birds. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16028. [PMID: 21253602 PMCID: PMC3017088 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors oseltamivir and zanamivir are the first-line of defense against potentially fatal variants of influenza A pandemic strains. However, if resistant virus strains start to arise easily or at a high frequency, a new anti-influenza strategy will be necessary. This study aimed to investigate if and to what extent NA inhibitor–resistant mutants exist in the wild population of influenza A viruses that inhabit wild birds. NA sequences of all NA subtypes available from 5490 avian, 379 swine and 122 environmental isolates were extracted from NCBI databases. In addition, a dataset containing 230 virus isolates from mallard collected at Ottenby Bird Observatory (Öland, Sweden) was analyzed. Isolated NA RNA fragments from Ottenby were transformed to cDNA by RT-PCR, which was followed by sequencing. The analysis of genotypic profiles for NAs from both data sets in regard to antiviral resistance mutations was performed using bioinformatics tools. All 6221 sequences were scanned for oseltamivir- (I117V, E119V, D198N, I222V, H274Y, R292K, N294S and I314V) and zanamivir-related mutations (V116A, R118K, E119G/A/D, Q136K, D151E, R152K, R224K, E276D, R292K and R371K). Of the sequences from the avian NCBI dataset, 132 (2.4%) carried at least one, or in two cases even two and three, NA inhibitor resistance mutations. Swine and environmental isolates from the same data set had 18 (4.75%) and one (0.82%) mutant, respectively, with at least one mutation. The Ottenby sequences carried at least one mutation in 15 cases (6.52%). Therefore, resistant strains were more frequently found in Ottenby samples than in NCBI data sets. However, it is still uncertain if these mutations are the result of natural variations in the viruses or if they are induced by the selective pressure of xenobiotics (e.g., oseltamivir, zanamivir).
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Affiliation(s)
- Goran Orozovic
- Section for Zoonotic Ecology and Epidemiology, Linneaus University, Kalmar, Sweden.
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29
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Lennerstrand J, Bondeson K, Bergqvist A, Blomberg J, Oberg B. [New antiviral agents against hepatitis C in clinical trials. Hope for a cure--but resistance problems must be overcomed]. Lakartidningen 2009; 106:3254-3260. [PMID: 20101837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
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Schinazi RF, Coats SJ, Bassit LC, Lennerstrand J, Nettles JH, Hurwitz SJ. Approaches for the development of antiviral compounds: the case of hepatitis C virus. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2009:25-51. [PMID: 19048196 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-79086-0_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Traditional methods for general drug discovery typically include evaluating random compound libraries for activity in relevant cell-free or cell-based assays. Success in antiviral development has emerged from the discovery of more focused libraries that provide clues about structure activity relationships. Combining these with more recent approaches including structural biology and computational modeling can work efficiently to hasten discovery of active molecules, but that is not enough. There are issues related to biology, toxicology, pharmacology, and metabolism that have to be addressed before a hit compound becomes nominated for clinical development. The objective of gaining early preclinical knowledge is to reduce the risk of failure in Phases 1, 2, and 3, leading to the goal of approved drugs that benefit the infected individual. This review uses hepatitis C virus (HCV), for which we still do not have an ideal therapeutic modality, as an example of the multidisciplinary efforts needed to discover new antiviral drugs for the benefit of humanity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond F Schinazi
- Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, VA Medical Center, Emory University School of Medicine, 1670 Clairmont Road, Decatur, GA 30033, USA.
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Lennerstrand J, Chu CK, Schinazi RF. Biochemical studies on the mechanism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase resistance to 1-(beta-D-dioxolane)thymine triphosphate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51:2078-84. [PMID: 17403997 PMCID: PMC1891359 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00119-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A large panel of drug-resistant mutants of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase (RT) was used to study the mechanisms of resistance to 1-(beta-d-dioxolane)thymine triphosphate (DOT-TP) and other nucleotide analogs. RT containing thymidine analog-associated mutations (TAM) or RT with a T69S-SG insertion in combination with TAM removed 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine-5'-monophosphate or tenofovir more efficiently than DOT-monophosphate from chain-terminated DNA primer/template through ATP-mediated pyrophosphorolysis. For non-ATP-dependent discrimination toward DOT-TP, high levels of resistance were found for RT bearing the Q151M mutation with family mutations, while RT bearing only the M184V or the Y115F mutation conferred no resistance to DOT-TP. A lower degree of resistance to DOT-TP than to tenofovir diphosphate or carbovir-TP was found for RT containing the K65R mutation. In the present studies, 1-(beta-d-dioxolane)guanine triphosphate, another nucleotide with a dioxolane sugar moiety, showed a resistance profile similar to that of DOT-TP. The results suggest that DOT, compared with other approved nucleoside analogs, is overall more resilient to mutations such as TAM, M184V, and K65R, which are commonly found in viruses derived from subjects failing multinucleoside therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lennerstrand
- Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Emory University/Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1670 Clairmont Rd., Medical Research 151-H, Decatur, GA 30033, USA
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Curr K, Tripathi S, Lennerstrand J, Larder BA, Prasad VR. Influence of naturally occurring insertions in the fingers subdomain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase on polymerase fidelity and mutation frequencies in vitro. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:419-428. [PMID: 16432030 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81458-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The fingers subdomain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) is a hotspot for nucleoside analogue resistance mutations. Some multi-nucleoside analogue-resistant variants contain a T69S substitution along with dipeptide insertions between residues 69 and 70. This set of mutations usually co-exists with classic zidovudine-resistance mutations (e.g. M41L and T215Y) or an A62V mutation and confers resistance to multiple nucleoside analogue inhibitors. As insertions lie in the vicinity of the dNTP-binding pocket, their influence on RT fidelity was investigated. Commonly occurring insertion mutations were selected, i.e. T69S-AG, T69S-SG and T69S-SS alone, in combination with 3'-azido-2',3'-deoxythymidine-resistance mutations M41L, L210W, R211K, L214F, T215Y (LAG(AZ) and LSG(AZ)) or with an alternate set where A62V substitution replaces M41L (VAG(AZ), VSG(AZ) and VSS(AZ)). Using a lacZalpha gapped duplex substrate, the forward mutation frequencies of recombinant wild-type and mutant RTs bearing each of the above sets of mutations were measured. All of the mutants displayed significant decreases in mutation frequencies. Whereas the dipeptide insertions alone showed the least decrease (4.0- to 7.5-fold), the VAG series showed an intermediate reduction (5.0- to 11.4-fold) and the LAG set showed the largest reduction in mutation frequencies (15.3- and 16.3-fold for LAG(AZ) and LSG(AZ), respectively). Single dNTP exclusion assays for mutants LSG(AZ) and LAG(AZ) confirmed their large reduction in misincorporation efficiencies. The increased in vitro fidelity was not due to excision of the incorrect nucleotide via ATP-dependent removal. There was also no direct correlation between increased fidelity and template-primer affinity, suggesting a change in the active site that is conducive to better discrimination during dNTP insertion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Curr
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Snehlata Tripathi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, UMDNJ - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Johan Lennerstrand
- Emory University School of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, USA
| | | | - Vinayaka R Prasad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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Shao XW, Malmsten A, Lennerstrand J, Sönnerborg A, Unge T, Gronowitz JS, Källander CF. Use of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase recovered from human plasma for phenotypic drug susceptibility testing. AIDS 2003; 17:1463-71. [PMID: 12824784 DOI: 10.1097/00002030-200307040-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To demonstrate the use of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) recovered directly from plasma for phenotypic drug susceptibility testing. METHODS Plasma from HIV-1 infected individuals with and without drug resistance-associated mutations were selected for the study. The blind coded plasmas were treated to inactivate cellular enzymes. The virions were immobilized on a gel and washed to remove antiretroviral drugs and RT activity blocking antibodies. The immobilized virions were lysed; the viral RT eluted and quantified, all according to the ExaVir Load procedure. The drug sensitivity profiles of each RT were determined using serially diluted drugs and modified Cavidi HS Lenti RT kits. RESULTS The phenotypic drug sensitivity profiles of the RT and the patterns of drug resistance mutations were highly concordant. Plasma RT from virions devoid of mutations associated with drug resistance had average 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) of 1.5 +/- 0.93 microM for nevirapine, 0.21 +/- 0.099 microM for efavirenz, 7.1 +/- 3.2 microM for delavirdine, 0.42 +/- 0.15 microM for azidothymidine triphosphate and 0.059 +/- 0.018 microM for didehydrothymidine triphosphate. The increase in IC(50) value for RT with drug resistance associated substitutions was from 3- to more than 65-fold for non-nucleoside inhibitors and between 2- and 30-fold for thymidine analogue drugs. CONCLUSION RT derived from virions recovered from the plasma of HIV infected individuals can be used for analysis of phenotypic drug susceptibility. The methods presented provide rapid alternatives for analysing phenotypic drug susceptibility especially when the therapy is based on non-nucleoside RT inhibitors and thymidine-analogue drugs.
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Meyer PR, Lennerstrand J, Matsuura SE, Larder BA, Scott WA. Effects of dipeptide insertions between codons 69 and 70 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase on primer unblocking, deoxynucleoside triphosphate inhibition, and DNA chain elongation. J Virol 2003; 77:3871-7. [PMID: 12610164 PMCID: PMC149510 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.6.3871-3877.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Finger insertion mutations of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) (T69S mutations followed by various dipeptide insertions) have a multinucleoside resistance phenotype that can be explained by decreased sensitivity to deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) inhibition of the nucleotide-dependent unblocking activity of RT. We show that RTs with SG or AG (but not SS) insertions have three- to fourfold-increased unblocking activity and that all three finger insertion mutations have threefold-decreased sensitivity to dNTP inhibition. The additional presence of M41L and T215Y mutations increased unblocking activity for all three insertions, greatly reduced the sensitivity to dNTP inhibition, and resulted in defects in in vitro DNA chain elongation. The DNA chain elongation defects were partially repaired by additional mutations at positions 210, 211, and 214. These results suggest that structural communication between the regions of RT defined by these mutations plays a role in the multinucleoside resistance phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter R Meyer
- University of Miami, School of Medicine, Miami, Florida 33101-6129, USA
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35
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Chamberlain PP, Ren J, Nichols CE, Douglas L, Lennerstrand J, Larder BA, Stuart DI, Stammers DK. Crystal structures of Zidovudine- or Lamivudine-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptases containing mutations at codons 41, 184, and 215. J Virol 2002; 76:10015-9. [PMID: 12208978 PMCID: PMC136500 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.19.10015-10019.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Six structures of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) containing combinations of resistance mutations for zidovudine (AZT) (M41L and T215Y) or lamivudine (M184V) have been determined as inhibitor complexes. Minimal conformational changes in the polymerase or nonnucleoside RT inhibitor sites compared to the mutant RTMC (D67N, K70R, T215F, and K219N) are observed, indicating that such changes may occur only with certain combinations of mutations. Model building M41L and T215Y into HIV-1 RT-DNA and docking in ATP that is utilized in the pyrophosphorolysis reaction for AZT resistance indicates that some conformational rearrangement appears necessary in RT for ATP to interact simultaneously with the M41L and T215Y mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- P P Chamberlain
- Division of Structural Biology, The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom
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36
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Shao XW, Hjalmarsson S, Lennerstrand J, Svennerholm B, Blomberg J, Källander CFR, Gronowitz JS. Application of a colorimetric chain-termination assay for characterization of reverse transcriptase from 3'-azido-2',3'-deoxythymidine-resistant HIV isolates. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2002; 35:155-64. [PMID: 12074693 DOI: 10.1042/ba20010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Two different enzyme assays, both based on the interaction of native reverse transcriptase (RT) and 3'-azido-2',3'-deoxythymidine triphosphate (AZT-TP), were used to characterize the enzymes from 18 HIV-1 isolates with decreased sensitivity to AZT in cell culture. The first assay, which measures the balance between incorporation and excision of AZT monophosphate in the presence of dNTP substrate (in terms of IC(50)), gave an approx. 9-fold variation in sensitivity to AZT-TP. There was a correlation between the IC(50) values and the sensitivity of the corresponding virus to AZT in cell culture (r=0.60, P<0.01). The second assay, which was designed specifically for measurement of chain termination in the absence of dNTP substrate (as the concentration of AZT-TP giving 50% residual primer function, or CT(50)), revealed a more than 600-fold difference between the different isolate RTs. For the majority of enzymes there was a strict correlation between the results from the two assays; however, four isolates exhibited significantly higher CT(50)/IC(50) ratios than the other isolates. These differences were not related to sensitivity of the corresponding viruses to AZT but to the occurrence of certain mutations in their pol gene. The four deviating isolates contained either a minimum of four AZT-specific substitutions, including Thr-215-->Tyr (isolates 134 and 143), or some of the known specific substitutions combined with Thr-39-->Ala (isolates 80 and 157). The Thr-39-->Ala substitution has previously been recorded in connection with AZT/Foscarnet combination therapy.
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37
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Lennerstrand J, Hertogs K, Stammers DK, Larder BA. Correlation between viral resistance to zidovudine and resistance at the reverse transcriptase level for a panel of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 mutants. J Virol 2001; 75:7202-5. [PMID: 11435603 PMCID: PMC114451 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.15.7202-7205.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a large panel of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 site-directed mutants, we have observed a higher correlation than has previously been demonstrated between zidovudine (AZT)-triphosphate resistance data at the reverse transcriptase (RT) level and corresponding viral AZT resistance. This enhanced-resistance effect at the RT level was seen with ATP and to a lesser extent with PP(i) when ATP was added at physiological concentrations. The ATP-dependent mechanism (analogous to pyrophosphorolysis) appears to be dominant in the mutants bearing the D67N and K70R or 69 insertion mutations, whereas the Q151M mutation seems independent of ATP for decreased binding to AZT-triphosphate.
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38
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Lennerstrand J, Stammers DK, Larder BA. Biochemical mechanism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase resistance to stavudine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45:2144-6. [PMID: 11408240 PMCID: PMC90617 DOI: 10.1128/aac.45.7.2144-2146.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have found a close correlation between viral stavudine (d4T) resistance and resistance to d4T-triphosphate at the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase (RT) level. RT from site-directed mutants with 69S-XX codon insertions and/or conventional zidovudine resistance mutations seems to be involved in an ATP-dependent resistance mechanism analogous to pyrophosphorolysis, whereas the mechanism for RT with the Q151M or V75T mutation appears to be independent of added ATP for reducing binding to d4T-triphosphate.
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39
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Linderholm BK, Lindahl T, Holmberg L, Klaar S, Lennerstrand J, Henriksson R, Bergh J. The expression of vascular endothelial growth factor correlates with mutant p53 and poor prognosis in human breast cancer. Cancer Res 2001; 61:2256-60. [PMID: 11280795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Wild-type p53 protein has been shown to inhibit angiogenesis through thrombospondin in the preclinical setting. Here, we determined the associations between the expression of the angiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and the p53 status, including different mutation sites and types, in primary breast cancer. Cytosols from 224 primary breast cancer patients were analyzed with an enzyme immunoassay for determination of human VEGF165 protein content. p53 status was determined by cDNA-based sequencing of the entire coding region, by immunohistochemistry (IHC), and by a p53 luminometric immunoassay (LIA) method. Statistically significant associations was found between higher VEGF content and non-wild-type p53 status for all methods; sequence-based data (P = 0.0019), IHC data (P = 0.0068), and the LIA method (r = 0.427; P > 0.001). Highest VEGF values were detected in tumors with p53 insertions, deletions, and stop codon mutations (P = 0.0043). Combining p53 status and VEGF content resulted in additional prognostic information, relapse-free survival (RFS; P = 0.0377), overall survival (OS; P = 0.0319), and breast cancer corrected survival (BCCS; P = 0.0292). In multivariate analysis, the relative hazard increased when the VEGF data were added to the p53 status, with a relative hazard of 1.7 for RFS and 3.0 for BCCS, compared with 1.1 for RFS and 1.4 for BCCS among the patients with either high VEGF content or p53 mutation. Higher VEGF content was statistically significantly correlated with a worse outcome for patients with estrogen receptor-positive tumors receiving adjuvant tamoxifen: RFS (P = 0.0471), OS (P = 0.0134), BCCS (P = 0.0064), as well as in multivariate analysis with point estimates of 3.4 and 2.1 for BCCS and RFS, respectively. VEGF expression is related to p53 status in human breast cancer patients. Combining VEGF with p53 status resulted in better prognostic prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- B K Linderholm
- Department of Oncology, Radiumhemmet, Karolinska Institute and Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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40
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Norberg T, Lennerstrand J, Inganäs M, Bergh J. Comparison between p53 protein measurements using the luminometric immunoassay and immunohistochemistry with detection of p53 gene mutations using cDNA sequencing in human breast tumors. Int J Cancer 1998; 79:376-83. [PMID: 9699530 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19980821)79:4<376::aid-ijc12>3.0.co;2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The p53 mutational status of 226 representative primary breast cancer samples, derived from a population-based cohort, was analyzed using cDNA-based sequencing. The results were compared with those obtained with immunohistochemistry (IHC) on microwave-treated paraffin sections and the p53 specific luminometric immunoassay (LIA) on cytosols, all from the same individuals. Thirty-seven mutations were found using cDNA sequencing and were categorized into A) missense mutations in the evolutionarily conserved regions; B) missense mutations outside the evolutionarily regions; and C) deletions, insertions and nonsense mutations. Using optimal cut-off values, LIA detected 15 of 16 missense mutations in category A, in which IHC detected all 16. In category B, 10 of 13 and 7 of 13 mutations were detected, respectively. Some of the samples in category A had a very high p53 protein content when measured with the LIA, the reason for this being discussed. IHC detected 0 of 5 stop codon and 0 of 3 deletions/insertions mutations, while the LIA method detected 2 of 5 stop codon mutations and 1 of 3 deletion/insertion mutations. Compared with cDNA sequencing, protein analyses using optimal cut-off values resulted in an overall sensitivity and specificity of 64.9% and 89.9%, respectively, for the LIA method. Corresponding values were 72.2% and 92% for IHC. In addition, patients from whom p53 mutations could be detected by cDNA sequencing had a statistically significant (p = 0.0137) shorter survival, which was not readily apparent using the alternative LIA or IHC approaches at optimal cut-off values.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Norberg
- Department of Oncology, University of Uppsala, Akademiska Sjukhuset, Sweden
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Lennerstrand J, Rytting AS, Vrang L, Gronowitz J, Källander C. Application of a Chain Termination Assay for Characterization of Reverse Transcriptase from AZT-Resistant HIV Isolates. Antivir Chem Chemother 1996. [DOI: 10.1177/095632029600700604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An enzymatic assay based on utilization of one primer/enzyme molecule was specifically designed for evaluation of the chain termination capacity of reverse transcriptase (RT) from HIV-1 isolates. In this assay system (CT assay) there was a 3.2-fold difference between the AZT-triphosphate (AZT-TP) concentrations required to terminate 50% of the primers (TC50) for a highly resistant isolate, carrying the four common mutations at positions 67, 70, 215, and 219; and two wild type isolates. Two of three other isolates with reduced sensitivity to AZT in cell culture exhibited intermediate values in CT assay, while one behaved as the wild type isolates. There was a correlation P = 0.05 ( r = 0.86, n = 6) between the ED50values found in cell culture and the TC50values found in CT assay. This relationship was not found in a similar assay system which measured competition between AZT-TP and 1 μM tymidine triphosphate (TTP) at the enzymatic level. The sequence data of the current isolates gave some information concerning which mutations in the RT gene specifically affect the enzymatic properties measured in CT assay. Mutation only at amino acid 70 had no effect, but the TC50values found increased with accumulation of the other common AZT resistance mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Lennerstrand
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Department of Medical Genetics, the Biomedical Centre, Box 584, S-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden
- Sangtec Medical AB, Box 20045, S-16120, Bromma, Sweden
| | - A.-S. Rytting
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Department of Medical Genetics, the Biomedical Centre, Box 584, S-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - L. Vrang
- Medivir AB, Lunastigen 7, S-14144 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - J.S. Gronowitz
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Department of Medical Genetics, the Biomedical Centre, Box 584, S-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - C.F.R. Källander
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Department of Medical Genetics, the Biomedical Centre, Box 584, S-751 23, Uppsala University, Sweden
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de Witte HH, Foekens JA, Lennerstrand J, Smid M, Look MP, Klijn JG, Benraad TJ, Berns EM. Prognostic significance of TP53 accumulation in human primary breast cancer: comparison between a rapid quantitative immunoassay and SSCP analysis. Int J Cancer 1996; 69:125-30. [PMID: 8608980 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19960422)69:2<125::aid-ijc10>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
TP53 accumulation in human primary breast carcinomas was studied by a quantitative luminometric immunoassay (LIA), and TP53 gene alterations, exons 5-8, were examined by single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis. In 48 of 142 breast tumor samples, a TP53 gene alteration was identified. In tumor samples without a TP53 gene alteration, the median cytosolic TP53 protein level, as determined by LIA, was 0.4 ng/mg protein (range 0-70.8 ng/mg protein), whereas the median TP53 protein level for tumor samples with a TP53 gene alteration was 10 times higher, i.e., 4.1 ng/mg protein (range 0.1-176.0 ng/mg protein). Despite a significant correlation between the outcome of LIA and SSCP, a disagreement was found in 22% of cases analyzed. Significant correlations were found between TP53 protein accumulation and low estrogen receptor content, and with a shorter relapse-free as well as overall survival, with a median duration of follow-up of 100 months. Due to its rapid and easy performance on routinely prepared cytosols, the LIA for TP53 protein may be useful in evaluating the prognostic impact of TP53 protein accumulation in human primary breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- H H de Witte
- Department of Experimental and Chemical Endocrinology, University Hospital Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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43
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Lennerstrand J, Rytting AS, Orvell C, Gronowitz JS, Kallander CF. A method for combined immunoaffinity purification and assay of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity useful for crude samples. Anal Biochem 1996; 235:141-52. [PMID: 8833322 DOI: 10.1006/abio.1996.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) activity in crude specimens was greatly enhanced using a novel capture RT assay. Eighteen different monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) raised against purified HIV-1 RT were tested for their ability to bind to HIV-1 RT without affecting its activity. The anti-HIV-1 RT Mabs were immobilized on plastic macrobeads and used as solid carriers in the capture RT assay. The assay system first involved RT's adherence to the immobilized Mabs. Nonspecific enzymes and other impurities were removed by a simple wash after which the RT reaction mixture was added. Substrate and product were finally separated by a wash of the beads. Practically all radioactivity incorporated into DNA (>98%) was recovered on the bead. The Michaelis-Menten constants and the saturation velocity values for the nucleotide substrate were similar for free and immobilized RT. The reaction mechanism for the immobilized RT is discussed. When comparing the function of this assay with more conventional soluble RT assays for samples consisting of recombinant HIV-1 RT mixed with an extract of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL), an almost 100-fold higher sensitivity was found. The capture RT assay had the capacity to recover approximately 80% of the RT activity added to an extract of 1 x 10(7) PBL cells/ ml. A strong correlation (r = 0.947) between the results obtained with this assay and a HIV-1 p24 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was found, when samples from a collection of 16 HIV strains propagated in cell culture were analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lennerstrand
- The Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Department of Medical Genetics, Uppsala University, Bromma, Sweden
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44
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Borg A, Lennerstrand J, Stenmark-Askmalm M, Fernö M, Brisfors A, Ohrvik A, Stål O, Killander D, Lane D, Brundell J. Prognostic significance of p53 overexpression in primary breast cancer; a novel luminometric immunoassay applicable on steroid receptor cytosols. Br J Cancer 1995; 71:1013-7. [PMID: 7734292 PMCID: PMC2033772 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.1995.195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel quantitative luminometric immunoassay (LIA) has been developed for the measurement of wild-type and mutant p53 protein in extracts from breast tumour tissue. The LIA was found to yield reliable estimates of p53 expression in cytosol samples routinely prepared for steroid receptor analysis as compared with results obtained with immunohistochemical analysis. The LIA was evaluated on 205 primary breast tumour cytosols prepared for steroid receptor analysis and stored frozen at -80 degrees C for 6-8 years, p53 protein being detected in 65% of the samples (range 0.01-23 ng mg-1 protein). Using an arbitrary cut-off value of 0.15 ng mg-1 protein, 30% of the tumours were classified as manifesting p53 overexpression. Significant and independent correlations were found to exist between p53 overexpression and shorter disease-free (P < 0.001) and overall survival (P = 0.039) at a median duration of follow-up of 50 months. p53 overexpression was related to low oestrogen receptor content and high proliferation rate (S-phase fraction). No relationship was found to tumour size or the presence of lymph node metastasis. Three tumours possessed an extremely high p53 content (> 10 ng mg-1 protein), all of which were of medullary or high-grade ductal type, oestrogen and progesterone receptor negative, DNA non-diploid, had S-phase fractions of > 22% and recurred within 1-2 years. In summary, a new sensitive and quantitative LIA suitable for routine analysis of p53 protein in steroid receptor cytosol preparations from breast tumours has been developed to confirm the prognostic importance of p53 protein accumulation in human breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Borg
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
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45
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Lennerstrand J, Sundström B, Lane D, Brundell J, Collins P. P53 Protein and antibodies to p53 in primary brain tumors. Results from a newly developed luminometric assay for p53 compared to immuno-histochemistry. Eur J Cancer 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0959-8049(93)91717-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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46
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Neumüller M, Karlsson A, Lennerstrand J, Källander CF, Sandström E, Holmberg V, Gronowitz JS. HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibiting antibody titer in serum: relation to disease progression and to core-antibody levels. J Med Virol 1992; 36:283-91. [PMID: 1374456 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.1890360410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A new assay for detecting inhibition of reverse transcriptase activity (the RT-i REA) was developed. This assay was standardized for screening serum samples for reverse transcriptase inhibiting antibodies (RT-iAb). High specificity (100%) and sensitivity (greater than 98%) were achieved with samples from HIV-negative individuals and HIV-infected individuals. The RT-i REA was also used in a study of the titers of RT-iAb in serum samples obtained from 33 HIV-infected homosexual men. The results confirmed the relation between decreasing RT-iAb levels and progression to late stages of the disease. Furthermore, a falling RT-iAb titer was observed in 14 of 15 individuals experiencing periods of severe clinical symptoms attributed to HIV-activity. In 7 of the patients the decline in RT-iAb titer began prior to severe clinical symptoms. The fall in RT-iAb titer also correlated with a reduction in core Ab level. The core Ab level has previously been reported to be a disease progression marker with considerable prognostic value. However, whereas all patients were positive for RT-iAb, 8 of the 33 patients did not have detectable core Ab. The use of RT-iAb titer as a marker of disease progression is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Neumüller
- Research Unit for Replication Enzymology, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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Neumüller M, Karlsson A, Lennerstrand J, Källander CF, Holmberg V, Långström-Persson U, Thorstensson R, Sandström E, Gronowitz JS. HIV reverse transcriptase inhibiting antibodies detected by a new technique: relation to p24 and gp41 antibodies, HIV antigenemia and clinical variables. J Med Virol 1991; 34:55-63. [PMID: 1715898 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.1890340110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A new assay for HIV reverse transcriptase activity inhibiting antibodies (RTI-ab) was used for the analysis of a large collection of sera sampled before and after confirmation of HIV infection. In this assay HIV-RT was preincubated with diluted serum, after which residual RT activity was determined by a technique using a template coupled to macrobeads and 125I-lodo-deoxyuridine-triphosphate as the tracer-substrate. Of the 936 sera analysed, 818 were found positive for RTI-ab, and 824 were positive in Western blot (Wb). The prevalence of RTI-ab compared to Wb was therefore 99.3%. The corresponding figure for 930 sera analysed for envelope-ab, i.e., gp41-ab, was 823 positive, and of these 930 sera 815 were Wb positive, giving a comparative prevalence of 101%. In contrast, only 678 samples of 993 analyzed for core ab, i.e., p24, were positive, giving a prevalence of 77.0% as 880 of these samples were Wb positive. Thus, RTI-ab was as prevalent as gp41-ab, and although the analyses of RTI-ab amounts in different stages showed decreasing levels in stage IV compared to stages II or III, all of the sera except 1 were found positive in stages III and IV. Further, it was found that both the few RTI-ab negative samples in stage II and the few RTI-ab positive samples among Wb negative sera were sampled in connection with seroconversion. The specificity of the RTI-ab assay was 100% in a test of 200 serum samples from HIV negative blood donors. It was concluded that RTI-ab analyses can be made highly sensitive and specific and useful for studies of HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Neumüller
- Research Unit of Replication Enzymology, Uppsala, Sweden
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Gronowitz JS, Neumüller M, Lennerstrand J, Bhikhabhai R, Unge T, Weltman H, Källander CF. Carrier bound templates for single tube reverse transcriptase assays and for combined purification and activity analyses, with special reference to HIV. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 1991; 13:127-42. [PMID: 1711325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Polyriboadenosine (prA) was coupled to polycarbonate macrobeads or magnetic beads. The efficiency of the beads and of prA-Sepharose, after priming with odT, as templates in activity assays of purified AMV- and HIV-reverse transcriptase (RT), using [125I]iododeoxyuridine-triphosphate as substrate, was studied. Although the use of immobilized templates, compared with soluble template, resulted in a decreased total molar turnover, it did not affect the sensitivity of the assay for detecting RT. The utility of the new assay was analyzed by mixing purified AMV- or HIV-Rt with different dilutions of the untreated clinical specimen. This showed that RT activity was unaffected by 100 microliters of an extract of whole blood cells resuspended to their original blood volume and diluted 1/64, and also by 100 microliters of serum diluted 1/64. To improve the utility of the assay at the inhibitory concentrations of clinical specimens, the following procedure was adopted: the sample to be analyzed was incubated with the carrier bound template in order to allow the RT to bind, the carrier was washed to remove inhibitory factors, and the reaction components were then added to determine the amount of bound RT. This procedure greatly enhanced the recovery of RT activity from crude specimens and made the direct detection of HIV-RT possible. The assay is easily automated and useful for RT determination in multiple samples and for determining RT-inhibiting substances such as substrate analogs and antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Gronowitz
- Research Unit for Replication Enzymology, Uppsala University, Sweden
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