The Primarily Undergraduate Nanomaterials Cooperative: A New Model for Supporting Collaborative Research at Small Institutions on a National Scale

The Primarily Undergraduate Nanomaterials Cooperative (PUNC) is an organization for research-active faculty studying nanomaterials at Primarily Undergraduate Institutions (PUIs), where undergraduate teaching and research go hand-in-hand. In this perspective, we outline the differences in maintaining an active research group at a PUI compared to an R1 institution. We also discuss the work of PUNC, which focuses on community building, instrument sharing, and facilitating new collaborations. Currently consisting of 37 members from across the United States, PUNC has created an online community consisting of its Web site (nanocooperative.org), a weekly online summer group meeting program for faculty and students, and a Discord server for informal conversations. Additionally, in-person symposia at ACS conferences and PUNC-specific conferences are planned for the future. It is our hope that in the years to come PUNC will be seen as a model organization for community building and research support at primarily undergraduate institutions.

A voltammetric investigation of the sulfidation of silver nanoparticles by zinc sulfide

Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are among the most common forms of nanoparticles in consumer products, yet the environmental implications of their widespread use remain unclear due to uncertainties about their fate. Because sulfidation of Ag NPs results in the formation of a stable silver sulfide (Ag₂S) product, it is likely an important removal mechanism of bioavailable silver in natural waters. In addition to sulfide, the complete conversion of Ag NPs to Ag₂S will require dissolved oxygen or some other oxidant so dispersed metal sulfides may be an important pool of reactive sulfide for such reactions in oxygenated systems. The reaction of Ag NPs with zinc sulfide (ZnS) was investigated using a voltammetric method, anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). ASV provided sensitive, in situ measurements of the release of zinc (Zn²⁺) cations resulting from the cation exchange reaction between Ag NPs and ZnS. The effects of Ag NP size and surface coatings on the initial rates of sulfidation by ZnS were examined. Sulfidation of smaller Ag NPs generally occurred faster and to a greater extent due to their larger relative surface areas. Sulfidation of Ag NPs capped by citrate and lipoic acid occurred more rapidly relative to polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and branched polyethylene (BPEI). This study demonstrates the utility of voltammetry for such investigations and provides insights into important factors controlling Ag NP sulfidation such as availability of dissolved oxygen, Ag NP size and Ag NP surface coating. Furthermore, this work demonstrates the importance of cation exchange reactions between silver and metal sulfides, and how the environmental release of Ag NPs could alter the speciation of other metals of environmental significance.

Stability of silver nanoparticle sulfidation products

The adoption of silver nanoparticles in consumer goods has raised concerns about the potential environmental harm of their widespread use. We studied chemical transformations that Ag NPs may undergo as they pass through sulfide-rich conditions common in waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), which may limit the release of Ag⁺ from Ag NPs due to the formation of low-solubility silver sulfide (Ag₂S). However, it is uncertain whether sulfidation is complete and if sulfidized Ag NPs continue to release Ag⁺. To address these uncertainties, we monitored the reaction of Ag NPs with various levels of sulfide with an ion selective electrode and UV/visible spectrophotometry over the course of two months. We characterized the products of the sulfidation reactions with a purge-and-trap acid volatile sulfide (AVS) analysis, which served as a measure of the stability of the sulfidized products because sulfide would be readily lost to oxidation unless it is stabilized as Ag₂S. The Ag NP surface plasmon resonance (SPR) absorbance peak was initially diminished and then returned over the course of several days after reaction with limited amounts of sulfide, suggesting a dynamic system that may retain some characteristics of the pristine Ag NPs. However, ICP-MS analysis of sulfidized Ag NP suspensions over a two-month period demonstrates that sulfidation limits the release of Ag⁺ ions from nanosilver that pass through a WWTP, even when sulfide concentrations are limited relative to silver.

Variability of ethanol concentration in rainwater driven by origin versus season in coastal and inland North Carolina, USA

Rainwater ethanol concentrations were measured for one year (June 2013-May 2014) in central (Elon, NC) and coastal (Wilmington, NC) North Carolina, allowing for a comparison of the effects of coastal and marine rain on ethanol concentration and deposition both at the coast and 250 km inland. Rain samples were collected on an event basis and analyzed using enzyme oxidation and headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). The volume-weighted average ethanol concentration at Elon (609 ± 116 nM) was higher than at Wilmington (208 ± 21 nM). Rainfall influenced by air masses originating over the Atlantic Ocean has previously been observed to be lower in ethanol concentration than terrestrial rain at the Wilmington location, and this was true during this study as well. Lower-ethanol marine and coastal air masses did not affect the concentration of ethanol in Elon rain, 250 km from the coast. This is likely due to the rapid supply of locally emitted ethanol to air masses moving over the land. No difference in rainwater ethanol concentrations was observed for Elon rain based on air mass back trajectories, most likely because all the rain was impacted by both anthropogenic and biogenic terrestrial sources typical of most inland areas. Seasonal variation in ethanol concentrations was significant in the inland location with elevated ethanol concentrations observed in fall; no seasonal variation was observed in coastal location rain. This study presents for the first time the different drivers for ethanol concentrations in rainwater from a coastal and a proximal inland location.

Surface waters as a sink and source of atmospheric gas phase ethanol

This study reports the first ethanol concentrations in fresh and estuarine waters and greatly expands the current data set for coastal ocean waters. Concentrations for 153 individual measurements of 11 freshwater sites ranged from 5 to 598 nM. Concentrations obtained for one estuarine transect ranged from 56 to 77 nM and levels in five coastal ocean depth profiles ranged from 81 to 334 nM. Variability in ethanol concentrations was high and appears to be driven primarily by photochemical and biological processes. 47 gas phase concentrations of ethanol were also obtained during this study to determine the surface water degree of saturation with respect to the atmosphere. Generally fresh and estuarine waters were undersaturated indicating they are not a source and may be a net sink for atmospheric ethanol in this region. Aqueous phase ethanol is likely converted rapidly to acetaldehyde in these aquatic ecosystems creating the undersaturated conditions resulting in this previously unrecognized sink for atmospheric ethanol. Coastal ocean waters may act as either a sink or source of atmospheric ethanol depending on the partial pressure of ethanol in the overlying air mass. Results from this study are significant because they suggest that surface waters may act as an important vector for the uptake of ethanol emitted into the atmosphere including ethanol from biofuel production and usage.

Temporal and spatial variability of trace volatile organic compounds in rainwater

This study presents the first detailed concentration profile of trace VOCs in atmospheric waters. Analytes were detected and quantified in 111 unique rain events in Wilmington, NC, USA over a one-year period. Headspace solid phase microextraction was optimized for detection of these compounds at sub-nanomolar levels. Distinct seasonality in both the occurrence and concentration of compounds was observed with the lowest abundance occurring during low irradiance winter months. In contrast to other rainwater components studied at this location, VOCs did not show any correlation between rainfall amount and concentrations. There was significant spatial variation with regards to air-mass back-trajectory for methyfuran with higher concentrations observed in terrestrial events during the growing season. Air mass back trajectory also impacted CCl4 concentrations in rainwater with evidence of a possible oceanic input. However there was no significant impact of air-mass back-trajectory on the concentration of BTEX observed in rain indicating that storm origin is not the controlling factor driving concentrations of these analytes in precipitation. Members of the BTEX family did, however, have significant correlations with each other occurring in ratios aligned closely with ratios reported in the literature for gas-phase BTEX. Using available gas-phase data from locations with similar anthropogenic sources and Henry's Law constants, calculated concentrations agreed with VOC levels found in Wilmington rain. Results of this study indicate local gas-phase scavenging is the major source of VOCs in rain and wet deposition is not an efficient removal mechanism (<0.1%) of VOCs from the atmosphere.

Characterization of carbohydrates in rainwater from the southeastern North Carolina

Carbohydrates have been widely reported in atmospheric aerosols, but have not previously been quantified in rainwater. We have identified and quantified a series of 11 specific compounds including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, arabinose, galactose and pinitol), disaccharides (sucrose and trehalose), sugar alcohols (arabitol, dulcitol and mannitol) and the anhydrosaccharide levoglucosan. Rainwater analyzed in this study includes 52 distinct precipitation events in Wilmington, NC between June 2011 and October 2012. Our analysis indicates carbohydrates typically contribute <1% of total dissolved organic carbon in rain, but can account for as much as 10-35% during periods of high pollen or local fires. Concentrations of individual carbohydrates reached as high as 5.8 μM, with glucose and sucrose typically being the predominant species. The distribution of carbohydrates exhibited a distinct seasonal pattern, with higher concentrations of most carbohydrates, especially sucrose, in spring and summer, driven primarily by increased biogenic inputs during the growing season. Concentrations of carbohydrates were an order of magnitude higher in storms of terrestrial origin compared to marine events, further supporting a terrestrial biogenic origin of most species. Sequential sampling of Hurricane Irene showed significant quantities of carbohydrates present at the end of the storm when air mass back trajectories traversed over land. The highest level of levoglucosan, a compound associated with biomass burning, was detected in rain with an air mass back trajectory that traveled over a region affected by wildfires. When compared to aerosol concentrations reported by others, the sugar concentrations in rain demonstrate wet deposition is an important removal mechanism of this water-soluble and bioavailable fraction of atmospheric particulate organic matter.

Controls on the redox potential of rainwater

Hydrogen peroxide acting as a reductant affects the redox potential of rainwater collected at the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series Station, the South Island of New Zealand, the contiguous USA, and the primary study site in Wilmington, NC. Analytical measurements of both halves of redox couples for dissolved iron, mercury, and the nitrate-nitrite-ammonium system can predict the rainwater redox potential measured directly by a platinum electrode. Measurements of these redox couples along with the pH in rain yields pe⁻ between 8 and 11; the half reaction for hydrogen peroxide acting as a reductant using typical rainwater conditions of 15 μM H₂O₂ at pH 4.7 gives pe⁻ = 9.12, where pe⁻ = negative log of the activity of hydrated electrons. Of the six rainwater redox systems investigated, only manganese speciation appeared to be controlled by molecular oxygen (pe⁻ = 15.90). Copper redox speciation was consistent with superoxide acting as a reductant (pe⁻ = 2.7). The concentration of H₂O₂ in precipitation has more than doubled over the preceding decade due to a decrease in SO₂ emissions, which suggests the redox chemistry of rainwater is dynamic and changing, potentially altering the speciation of many organic compounds and trace metals in atmospheric waters.

Long-term temporal variability in hydrogen peroxide concentrations in Wilmington, North Carolina USA rainwater

Measurements of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), pH, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and inorganic anions (chloride, nitrate, and sulfate) in rainwater were conducted on an event basis at a single site in Wilmington, NC for the past decade in a study that included over 600 individual rain events. Annual volume weighted average (VWA) H(2)O(2) concentrations were negatively correlated (p < 0.001) with annual VWA nonseasalt sulfate (NSS) concentrations in low pH (<5) rainwater. Under these conditions H(2)O(2) is the primary aqueous-phase oxidant of SO(2) in the atmosphere. We attribute the increase of H(2)O(2) to decreasing SO(2) emissions which has had the effect of reducing a major tropospheric sink for H(2)O(2). Annual VWA H(2)O(2) concentrations in low pH (<5) rains showed a significant increase over the time scale of this study, which represents the only long-term continuous data set of H(2)O(2) concentrations in wet deposition at a single location. This compositional change has important implications because H(2)O(2) is a source of highly reactive free radicals so its increase reflects a higher overall oxidation capacity of atmospheric waters. Also, because rainwater is an important mechanism by which H(2)O(2) is transported from the atmosphere to surface waters, greater wet deposition of H(2)O(2) could influence the redox chemistry of receiving watersheds which typically have concentrations 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than rainwater.

Marine chemical technology and sensors for marine waters: potentials and limits

A significant need exists for in situ sensors that can measure chemical species involved in the major processes of primary production (photosynthesis and chemosynthesis) and respiration. Some key chemical species are O2, nutrients (N and P), micronutrients (metals), pCO2, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), pH, and sulfide. Sensors need to have excellent detection limits, precision, selectivity, response time, a large dynamic concentration range, low power consumption, robustness, and less variation of instrument response with temperature and pressure, as well as be free from fouling problems (biological, physical, and chemical). Here we review the principles of operation of most sensors used in marine waters. We also show that some sensors can be used in several different oceanic environments to detect the target chemical species, whereas others are useful in only one environment because of various limitations. Several sensors can be used truly in situ, whereas many others involve water brought into a flow cell via tubing to the analyzer in the environment or aboard ship. Multi-element sensors that measure many chemical species in the same water mass should be targeted for further development.

Formation of Zn- and Fe-sulfides near hydrothermal vents at the Eastern Lau Spreading Center: implications for sulfide bioavailability to chemoautotrophs

BACKGROUND

The speciation of dissolved sulfide in the water immediately surrounding deep-ocean hydrothermal vents is critical to chemoautotrophic organisms that are the primary producers of these ecosystems. The objective of this research was to identify the role of Zn and Fe for controlling the speciation of sulfide in the hydrothermal vent fields at the Eastern Lau Spreading Center (ELSC) in the southern Pacific Ocean. Compared to other well-studied hydrothermal systems in the Pacific, the ELSC is notable for unique ridge characteristics and gradients over short distances along the north-south ridge axis.

RESULTS

In June 2005, diffuse-flow (< 50 degrees C) and high-temperature (> 250 degrees C) vent fluids were collected from four field sites along the ELSC ridge axis. Total and filtered Zn and Fe concentrations were quantified in the vent fluid samples using voltammetric and spectrometric analyses. The results indicated north-to-south variability in vent fluid composition. In the high temperature vent fluids, the ratio of total Fe to total Zn varied from 39 at Kilo Moana, the most northern site, to less than 7 at the other three sites. The concentrations of total Zn, Fe, and acid-volatile sulfide indicated that oversaturation and precipitation of sphalerite (ZnS(s)) and pyrite (FeS2(s)) were possible during cooling of the vent fluids as they mixed with the surrounding seawater. In contrast, most samples were undersaturated with respect to mackinawite (FeS(s)). The reactivity of Zn(II) in the filtered samples was tested by adding Cu(II) to the samples to induce metal-exchange reactions. In a portion of the samples, the concentration of labile Zn2+ increased after the addition of Cu(II), indicating the presence of strongly-bound Zn(II) species such as ZnS clusters and nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study suggest that Zn is important to sulfide speciation at ELSC vent habitats, particularly at the southern sites where Zn concentrations increase relative to Fe. As the hydrothermal fluids mix with the ambient seawater, Zn-sulfide clusters and nanoparticles are likely preventing sulfide oxidation by O2 and reducing bioavailability of S(-II) to organisms.

Pseudopolarographic determination of Cd2+ complexation in freshwater

Pseudopolarography was used to detect Cd2+ complexes in samples collected at several locations along the Potomac River in June and September, 2004. Irrespective of site and sampling time, no weak inorganic Cd2+ species were present. However, up to two stable Cd(2+)-organic complexes were detected at each site. These unknown Cd2+ complexes were characterized by their half-wave potential (E1/2). The E1/2 values indicated certain Cd2+ complexes were common at different sites during each sampling but different complexes were observed in June and September. A Cd2+ chelate scale, generated from model ligands, was used to estimate the thermodynamic stability constants (K(THERM)) of the unknown complexes, which ranged from log K(THERM) = 21.5-32.0. Pseudopolarography did not recover all Cd2+ in the samples. This was partly attributed to highly stable Cd-sulfide species; owing to the presence of acid volatile sulfide at concentrations greater than total dissolved Cd2+. These electrochemically inert species may be multinuclear Cd-sulfide clusters and/ or nanoparticles with K(THERM) values that exceed the detection window of pseudopolarography (log K(THERM) > 34.4).

Kinetic Control in Noncovalent Synthesis: Regioselective Ligand Exchange into a Hydrogen Bonded Assembly

This paper illustrates the use of a kinetically controlled exchange reaction to effect regioselective modification of a hydrogen-bonded assembly. Both the bound anion and cation can control the exchange of ligand into the different layers of a synthetic G-quadruplex.

Lipophilic G-quadruplexes are self-assembled ion pair receptors, and the bound anion modulates the kinetic stability of these complexes

With an eye toward the eventual selective modification of noncovalent structures, we used ESI-MS, X-ray crystallography, and NMR spectroscopy to study the anion's influence on the structure and dynamics of self-assembled ion pair receptors formed from guanosine G 1. We compared five complexes of formula (G 1)(16).2Ba(2+).4A(-) containing different organic anions: 2,4,6-trinitrophenolate (2), 2,6-dinitrophenolate (3), 4-methyl-2,6-dinitrophenolate (4), 4-methoxy-2,6-dinitrophenolate (5), and 2,5-dinitrophenolate (6). Crystallography reveals that anion-nucleobase hydrogen bond geometry is sensitive to both phenolate basicity and structure. For the 2,6-substituted anions 2-5, progressive shortening of anion-nucleobase hydrogen bonds is correlated with increased phenolate basicity. Lipophilic G-quadruplexes with different anions also have much different kinetic stabilities in CD(2)Cl(2) solution. Proton NMR shows that free 6 exchanges faster with G-quadruplex-bound anion than do the 2,6-dinitrophenolates 2-5. The increased lability of 6 is probably because, unlike the 2,6-dinitrophenolates, this anion cannot effectively chelate separate G(8).M(2+) octamers via anion-nucleobase hydrogen bonds. In addition to these structural effects, the anion's basicity modulates the anion exchange rate between its free and bound states. 2D EXSY NMR shows that 3 and 5 exchange about 7 times slower than the less basic picrate (2). The use of 3, a relatively basic dinitrophenolate that hydrogen bonds with the amino groups of the two "inner" G(4)-quartets, resulted in extraordinary kinetic stabilization of the G-quadruplex in CD(2)Cl(2). Thus, no isomerization product (G 1)(8).Ba(2+).(G 1)(8).Sr(2+).4(3) was observed even 2 months after the separate G-quadruplexes (G 1)(16).2Ba(2+).4(3) and (G 1)(16).2Sr(2+).4(3) were combined in CD(2)Cl(2). In sharp contrast, G-quadruplexes containing the isomeric 6 anion have isomerization half-lives of approximately t(1/2) = 30 min under identical conditions. All the evidence indicates that the structure and electronics of the organic anions, bound to the assembly's periphery, are crucial for controlling the kinetic stability of these cation-filled G-quadruplexes.