A conserved annexin A6-mediated membrane repair mechanism in muscle, heart, and nerve

Membrane instability and disruption underlie myriad acute and chronic disorders. Anxa6 encodes the membrane-associated protein annexin A6 and was identified as a genetic modifier of muscle repair and muscular dystrophy. To evaluate annexin A6’s role in membrane repair in vivo, we inserted sequences encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) into the last coding exon of Anxa6. Heterozygous Anxa6gfp mice expressed a normal pattern of annexin A6 with reduced annexin A6GFP mRNA and protein. High-resolution imaging of wounded muscle fibers showed annexin A6GFP rapidly formed a repair cap at the site of injury. Injured cardiomyocytes and neurons also displayed repair caps after wounding, highlighting annexin A6–mediated repair caps as a feature in multiple cell types. Using surface plasmon resonance, we showed recombinant annexin A6 bound phosphatidylserine-containing lipids in a Ca²⁺- and dose-dependent fashion with appreciable binding at approximately 50 μM Ca²⁺. Exogenously added recombinant annexin A6 localized to repair caps and improved muscle membrane repair capacity in a dose-dependent fashion without disrupting endogenous annexin A6 localization, indicating annexin A6 promotes repair from both intracellular and extracellular compartments. Thus, annexin A6 orchestrates repair in multiple cell types, and recombinant annexin A6 may be useful in additional chronic disorders beyond skeletal muscle myopathies.

Anti-latent TGFβ binding protein 4 antibody improves muscle function and reduces muscle fibrosis in muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy, like other muscular dystrophies, is a progressive disorder hallmarked by muscle degeneration, inflammation, and fibrosis. Latent transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) binding protein 4 (LTBP4) is an extracellular matrix protein found in muscle. LTBP4 sequesters and inhibits a precursor form of TGFβ. LTBP4 was originally identified from a genome-wide search for genetic modifiers of muscular dystrophy in mice, where there are two different alleles. The protective form of LTBP4, which contains an insertion of 12 amino acids in the protein’s hinge region, was linked to increased sequestration of latent TGFβ, enhanced muscle membrane stability, and reduced muscle fibrosis. The deleterious form of LTBP4 protein, lacking 12 amino acids, was more susceptible to proteolysis and promoted release of latent TGF-β, and together, these data underscored the functional role of LTBP4’s hinge. Here, we generated a monoclonal human anti-LTBP4 antibody directed toward LTBP4’s hinge region. In vitro, anti-LTBP4 bound LTBP4 protein and reduced LTBP4 proteolytic cleavage. In isolated myofibers, the LTBP4 antibody stabilized the sarcolemma from injury. In vivo, anti-LTBP4 treatment of dystrophic mice protected muscle against force loss induced by eccentric contraction. Anti-LTBP4 treatment also reduced muscle fibrosis and enhanced muscle force production, including in the diaphragm muscle, where respiratory function was improved. Moreover, the anti-LTBP4 in combination with prednisone, a standard of care for Duchenne muscular dystrophy, further enhanced muscle function and protected against injury in mdx mice. These data demonstrate the potential of anti-LTBP4 antibodies to treat muscular dystrophy.

High seroprevalence for SARS-CoV-2 among household members of essential workers detected using a dried blood spot assay

OBJECTIVE

Serological testing is needed to investigate the extent of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from front-line essential workers to their household members. However, the requirement for serum/plasma limits serological testing to clinical settings where it is feasible to collect and process venous blood. To address this problem we developed a serological test for SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies that requires only a single drop of finger stick capillary whole blood, collected in the home and dried on filter paper (dried blood spot, DBS). We describe assay performance and demonstrate its utility for remote sampling with results from a community-based study.

METHODS

An ELISA to the receptor binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was optimized to quantify IgG antibodies in DBS. Samples were self-collected from a community sample of 232 participants enriched with health care workers, including 30 known COVID-19 cases and their household members.

RESULTS

Among 30 individuals sharing a household with a virus-confirmed case of COVID-19, 80% were seropositive. Of 202 community individuals without prior confirmed acute COVID-19 diagnoses, 36% were seropositive. Of documented convalescent COVID-19 cases from the community, 29 of 30 (97%) were seropositive for IgG antibodies to the receptor binding domain.

CONCLUSION

DBS ELISA provides a minimally-invasive alternative to venous blood collection. Early analysis suggests a high rate of transmission among household members. High rates of seroconversion were also noted following recovery from infection. Serological testing for SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in DBS samples can facilitate seroprevalence assessment in community settings to address epidemiological questions, monitor duration of antibody responses, and assess if antibodies against the spike protein correlate with protection from reinfection.

A gene-edited mouse model of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 2C for testing exon skipping

Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2C is caused by autosomal recessive mutations in the γ-sarcoglycan (SGCG) gene. The most common SGCG mutation is a single nucleotide deletion from a stretch of five thymine residues in SGCG exon 6 (521ΔT). This founder mutation disrupts the transcript reading frame, abolishing protein expression. An antisense oligonucleotide exon-skipping method to reframe the human 521ΔT transcript requires skipping four exons to generate a functional, internally truncated protein. In vivo evaluation of this multi-exon skipping, antisense-mediated therapy requires a genetically appropriate mouse model. The human and mouse γ-sarcoglycan genes are highly homologous in sequence and gene structure, including the exon 6 region harboring the founder mutation. Herein, we describe a new mouse model of this form of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy generated using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing to introduce a single thymine deletion in murine exon 6, recreating the 521ΔT point mutation in Sgcg These mice express the 521ΔT transcript, lack γ-sarcoglycan protein and exhibit a severe dystrophic phenotype. Phenotypic characterization demonstrated reduced muscle mass, increased sarcolemmal leak and fragility, and decreased muscle function, consistent with the human pathological findings. Furthermore, we showed that intramuscular administration of a murine-specific multiple exon-directed antisense oligonucleotide cocktail effectively corrected the 521ΔT reading frame. These data demonstrate a molecularly and pathologically suitable model for in vivo testing of a multi-exon skipping strategy to advance preclinical development of this genetic correction approach.

Recombinant annexin A6 promotes membrane repair and protects against muscle injury

Membrane repair is essential to cell survival. In skeletal muscle, injury often associates with plasma membrane disruption. Additionally, muscular dystrophy is linked to mutations in genes that produce fragile membranes or reduce membrane repair. Methods to enhance repair and reduce susceptibility to injury could benefit muscle in both acute and chronic injury settings. Annexins are a family of membrane-associated Ca2+-binding proteins implicated in repair, and annexin A6 was previously identified as a genetic modifier of muscle injury and disease. Annexin A6 forms the repair cap over the site of membrane disruption. To elucidate how annexins facilitate repair, we visualized annexin cap formation during injury. We found that annexin cap size positively correlated with increasing Ca2+ concentrations. We also found that annexin overexpression promoted external blebs enriched in Ca2+ and correlated with a reduction of intracellular Ca2+ at the injury site. Annexin A6 overexpression reduced membrane injury, consistent with enhanced repair. Treatment with recombinant annexin A6 protected against acute muscle injury in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, administration of recombinant annexin A6 in a model of muscular dystrophy reduced serum creatinine kinase, a biomarker of disease. These data identify annexins as mediators of membrane-associated Ca2+ release during membrane repair and annexin A6 as a therapeutic target to enhance membrane repair capacity.

Dusp6 is a genetic modifier of growth through enhanced ERK activity

Like other single-gene disorders, muscular dystrophy displays a range of phenotypic heterogeneity even with the same primary mutation. Identifying genetic modifiers capable of altering the course of muscular dystrophy is one approach to deciphering gene-gene interactions that can be exploited for therapy development. To this end, we used an intercross strategy in mice to map modifiers of muscular dystrophy. We interrogated genes of interest in an interval on mouse chromosome 10 associated with body mass in muscular dystrophy as skeletal muscle contributes significantly to total body mass. Using whole-genome sequencing of the two parental mouse strains combined with deep RNA sequencing, we identified the Met62Ile substitution in the dual-specificity phosphatase 6 (Dusp6) gene from the DBA/2 J (D2) mouse strain. DUSP6 is a broadly expressed dual-specificity phosphatase protein, which binds and dephosphorylates extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK), leading to decreased ERK activity. We found that the Met62Ile substitution reduced the interaction between DUSP6 and ERK resulting in increased ERK phosphorylation and ERK activity. In dystrophic muscle, DUSP6 Met62Ile is strongly upregulated to counteract its reduced activity. We found that myoblasts from the D2 background were insensitive to a specific small molecule inhibitor of DUSP6, while myoblasts expressing the canonical DUSP6 displayed enhanced proliferation after exposure to DUSP6 inhibition. These data identify DUSP6 as an important regulator of ERK activity in the setting of muscle growth and muscular dystrophy.

Deletion of Sulfonylurea Receptor 2 in the Adult Myocardium Enhances Cardiac Glucose Uptake and Is Cardioprotective

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In the heart, SUR2 couples with a potassium channel to form an adenosine triphosphate–sensitive complex that responds to the energy state of the cell.

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The authors deleted SUR2 in adult cardiomyocytes and found a shift of the heart toward glycolytic metabolism, which is protective under cardiac stress.

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SUR2 was found to complex with glucose transporter type 4, the major glucose transporter.

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Drugs that antagonize the SUR2 receptor may be cardioprotective and useful for managing heart failure.

The adult myocardium relies on oxidative metabolism. In ischemic myocardium, such as the embryonic heart, glycolysis contributes more prominently as a fuel source. The sulfonylurea receptor 2 (SUR2) was previously implicated in the normal myocardial transition from glycolytic to oxidative metabolism that occurs during adaptation to postnatal life. This receptor was now selectively deleted in adult mouse myocardium resulting in protection from ischemia reperfusion injury. SUR2-deleted cardiomyocytes had enhanced glucose uptake, and SUR2 forms a complex with the major glucose transporter. These data identify the SUR2 receptor as a target to shift cardiac metabolism to protect against myocardial injury.