Serine Protease Imbalance in the Small Airways and Development of Centrilobular Emphysema in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Epithelial dysfunction in the small airways may cause the development of emphysema in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. C/EBPα (CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α), a transcription factor, is required for lung maturation during development, and is also important for lung homeostasis after birth, including the maintenance of serine protease/antiprotease balance in the bronchiolar epithelium. This study aimed to show the roles of C/EBPα in the distal airway during chronic cigarette smoke exposure in mice and in the small airways in smokers. In a model of chronic smoke exposure using epithelial cell-specific C/EBPα-knockout mice, significant pathological phenotypes, such as higher protease activity, impaired ciliated cell regeneration, epithelial cell barrier dysfunction via reduced zonula occludens-1 (Zo-1), and decreased alveolar attachments, were found in C/EBPα-knockout mice compared with control mice. We found that Spink5 (serine protease inhibitor kazal-type 5) gene (encoding lymphoepithelial Kazal-type-related inhibitor [LEKTI], an anti-serine protease) expression in the small airways is a key regulator of protease activity in this model. Finally, we showed that daily antiprotease treatment counteracted the phenotypes of C/EBPα-knockout mice. In human studies, CEBPA (CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α) gene expression in the lung was downregulated in patients with emphysema, and six smokers with centrilobular emphysema (CLE) showed a significant reduction in LEKTI in the small airways compared with 22 smokers without CLE. LEKTI downregulation in the small airways was associated with disease development during murine small airway injury and CLE in humans, suggesting that LEKTI might be a key factor linking small airway injury to the development of emphysema.

EFFECT ON MICROBIAL PRODUCTS ON CAESIUM ELUTION BEHAVIOUR FROM CLAY MINERALS

Some microorganisms in the environment make siderophores, which are low molecular chelators, to take up minerals from soil. Eleven bacteria were separated from the root of white clover by chlome azrol S (CAS) assay. Each bacterium was incubated in casamino acid (CAA) culture, and siderophores in CAA culture were purified. These extractions were applied to biotite or vermiculite spiked with Cs. From each clay mineral, 57.1-72.8% (5100 ppm), 55.6-63.8% (920 ppm) and 48.6-54.3% (2300 ppm), 31.6-34.4% (520 ppm) was eluted, respectively. To understand elution behaviour, Cs desorption ratio of each clay was measured every 30 min. The results indicate Cs elution was occurred quickly.

Inhibition of opioid systems in the hypothalamus as well as the mesolimbic area suppresses feeding behavior of mice

Opioid receptors, especially μ-opioid receptors, in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) are reported to regulate food motivation. However, the roles of μ-, δ- and κ-opioid receptors are not fully understood. Moreover, since μ-, δ- and κ-opioid receptors are reported to distribute in the hypothalamus, these receptors in the hypothalamus might regulate feeding behavior. Thus, the present study investigated the role of μ-, δ- and κ-opioid receptors in the VTA, the NAcc and the hypothalamus in the regulation of feeding behavior. Male ICR mice were subjected to a feeding test after food deprivation for 16h. The mRNA levels of proopiomelanocortin (POMC), preproenkephalin (PENK) and prodynorphin (PDYN), the precursors of endogenous opioid peptides, were measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The systemic injection of non-selective (naloxone) and selective μ (β-funaltrexamine; β-FNA), δ (naltrindole) and κ (norbinaltorphimine; norBNI) opioid receptor antagonists markedly reduced food intake. In contrast, the systemic injection of preferential μ (morphine), selective δ (KNT-127) and κ (U-50,488) opioid receptor agonists did not change food intake. The mRNA levels of POMC, PENK and PDYN were decreased in the hypothalamus and the midbrain after food deprivation, whereas the mRNA levels of PENK and PDYN, but not POMC, were decreased in the ventral striatum. The injection of naloxone into the NAcc, VTA and lateral hypothalamus (LH), but not the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, significantly decreased food intake. The injection of β-FNA and naltrindole into the LH, but not the VTA or NAcc, decreased food intake. The injection of norBNI into the LH and VTA, but not the NAcc, decreased food intake. These results indicate that μ-, δ- and κ-opioid receptors in the LH play a more important role in the regulation of feeding behavior than those receptors in the VTA and the NAcc.

Three-Dimensional Study of the Terminal Portion in Sprague-Dawley Rat Ejaculatory Ducts

In mammals, a pair of ejaculatory ducts exists in the urethra at the seminal colliculus. The detailed anatomical structures of the distal end of the ejaculatory ducts of Sprague-Dawley rats were investigated by the computer-assisted three-dimensional reconstruction analysis using light-microscopic serial sections. A three-dimensional reconstruction revealed that in adult rats, the ejaculatory sinus pair consists of two parts: the cranial section - a compartment region composed of a fusion of the ampullary gland duct and the seminal vesicle duct, and the caudal section - a grooved region composed of a long slitlike ejaculatory ostium that extends into the urethra on both sides of the seminal colliculus. But the sphincter structure was not observed. The long axis of the compartment region was approximately 58 μm in length, and that of the groove region was approximately 495 μm. Although many epithelial glands ducts were distributed throughout the ejaculatory sinuses, the prostate and coagulation gland ducts did not open in these sinuses. The urethra was composed of transitional epithelium, while the ejaculatory sinuses were composed of single to stratified cuboidal epithelium. The ejaculatory ducts continued to the ejaculatory ostium in male adult Sprague-Dawley rat were composed of the seminal vesicle ducts received the ampullary gland ducts.

Lysophosphatidylcholine Acyltransferase 1 (LPCAT1) Specifically Interacts with Phospholipid Transfer Protein StarD10 to Facilitate Surfactant Phospholipid Trafficking in Alveolar Type II Cells

Pulmonary surfactant, a mixture of proteins and phospholipids, plays an important role in facilitating gas exchange by maintaining alveolar stability. Saturated phosphatidylcholine (SatPC), the major component of surfactant, is synthesized both de novo and by the remodeling of unsaturated phosphatidylcholine (PC) by lyso-PC acyltransferase 1 (LPCAT1). After synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum, SatPC is routed to lamellar bodies (LBs) for storage prior to secretion. The mechanism by which SatPC is transported to LB is not understood. The specificity of LPCAT1 for lyso-PC as an acyl acceptor suggests that formation of SatPC via LPCAT1 reacylation is a final step in SatPC synthesis prior to transport. We hypothesized that LPCAT1 forms a transient complex with SatPC and specific phospholipid transport protein(s) to initiate trafficking of SatPC from the endoplasmic reticulum to the LB. Herein we have assessed the ability of different StarD proteins to interact with LPCAT1. We found that LPCAT1 interacts with StarD10, that this interaction is direct, and that amino acids 79-271 of LPCAT1 and the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein-related lipid transfer (START) domain of START domain-containing protein 10 (StarD10) are sufficient for this interaction. The role of StarD10 in trafficking of phospholipid to LB was confirmed by the observation that knockdown of StarD10 significantly reduced transport of phospholipid to LB. LPCAT1 also interacted with one isoform of StarD7 but showed no interaction with StarD2/PC transfer protein.

Bone marrow-derived stromal cells are invasive and hyperproliferative and alter transforming growth factor-α-induced pulmonary fibrosis

Pulmonary fibrosis is caused by excessive proliferation and accumulation of stromal cells. Fibrocytes are bone marrow (BM)-derived cells that contribute to pathologic stromal cell accumulation in human lung disease. However, the cellular source for these stromal cells and the degree of fibrocyte contribution to pulmonary fibrosis remain unclear. To determine the etiology of stromal cell excess during pulmonary fibrosis, we measured fibrocytes during the progression of fibrosis in the transforming growth factor (TGF)-α transgenic mouse model. Lung epithelial-specific overexpression of TGF-α led to progressive pulmonary fibrosis associated with increased accumulation of fibrocytes in the fibrotic lesions. Although reconstitution of BM cells into TGF-α mice demonstrated accumulation of these cells in fibrotic lesions, the majority of the cells did not express α-smooth muscle actin, suggesting that fibrocytes did not transform into myofibroblasts. To explore the mechanisms of fibrocytes in pulmonary fibrogenesis, adoptive cell-transfer experiments were performed. Purified fibrocytes were transferred intravenously into TGF-α transgenic mice, and fibrosis endpoints were compared with controls. Analysis of lung histology and hydroxyproline levels demonstrated that fibrocyte transfers augment TGF-α-induced lung fibrosis. A major subset of TGF-α-induced fibrocytes expressed CD44 and displayed excessive invasiveness, which is attenuated in the presence of anti-CD44 antibodies. Coculture experiments of resident fibroblasts with fibrocytes demonstrated that fibrocytes stimulate proliferation of resident fibroblasts. In summary, fibrocytes are increased in the progressive, fibrotic lesions of TGF-α-transgenic mice and activate resident fibroblasts to cause severe lung disease.

Epithelial SCAP/INSIG/SREBP signaling regulates multiple biological processes during perinatal lung maturation

Pulmonary surfactant is required for lung function at birth and throughout postnatal life. Defects in the surfactant system are associated with common pulmonary disorders including neonatal respiratory distress syndrome and acute respiratory distress syndrome in children and adults. Lipogenesis is essential for the synthesis of pulmonary surfactant by type II epithelial cells lining the alveoli. This study sought to identify the role of pulmonary epithelial SREBP, a transcriptional regulator of cellular lipid homeostasis, during a critical time period of perinatal lung maturation in the mouse. Genome wide mRNA expression profiling of lung tissue from transgenic mice with epithelial-specific deletions of Scap (Scap^Δ/Δ, resulting in inactivation of SREBP signaling) or Insig1 and Insig2 (Insig1/2^Δ/Δ, resulting in activation of SREBP signaling) was assessed. Differentially expressed genes responding to SREBP perturbations were identified and subjected to functional enrichment analysis, pathway mapping and literature mining to predict upstream regulators and transcriptional networks regulating surfactant lipid homeostasis. Through comprehensive data analysis and integration, time dependent effects of epithelial SCAP/INSIG/SREBP deletion and defined SCAP/INSIG/SREBP-associated genes, bioprocesses and downstream pathways were identified. SREBP signaling influences epithelial development, cell death and cell proliferation at E17.5, while primarily influencing surfactant physiology, lipid/sterol synthesis, and phospholipid transport after birth. SREBP signaling integrated with the Wnt/β-catenin and glucocorticoid receptor signaling pathways during perinatal lung maturation. SREBP regulates perinatal lung lipogenesis and maturation through multiple mechanisms by interactions with distinct sets of regulatory partners.

Clinicopathological features of narrow-band imaging endoscopy and immunohistochemistry in ultraminute esophageal squamous neoplasms

To reveal clinicopathological features of narrow-band imaging (NBI) endoscopy and immunohistochemistry in ultraminute esophageal squamous neoplasms. If a lesion diameter was smaller or same compared with a width of closed biopsy forceps, a lesion was defined to be an ultraminute lesion. Twenty-five consecutive patients with 33 ultraminute esophageal lesions that were removed by endoscopic mucosal resection were included in the present study. We conducted two questionnaire surveys of six endoscopists by their retrospective review of endoscopic still images. The six endoscopists evaluated the endoscopic findings of the ultraminute lesions on still images taken by conventional white-light imaging endoscopy and non-magnified NBI endoscopy in the first questionnaire, and taken by magnified NBI endoscopy in the second questionnaire. An experienced pathologist who was unaware of any endoscopic findings made histological diagnosis and evaluated immunoexpression of p53 and Ki67. The 33 ultraminute lesions were all determined to be either 11 high-grade intraepithelial neoplasias (HGIENs) or 22 low-grade intraepithelial neoplasias (LGIENs). The tumor diameters were histologically confirmed to be <3 mm. All of the ultraminute tumors were visualized as unstained areas and brownish areas by real-time endoscopy with Lugol dye staining and non-magnified NBI endoscopy, respectively. All of the ultraminute IENs were visualized as brownish areas by real-time non-magnified NBI endoscopy. Three of the 25 patients with the ultraminute IENs (12%) had multiple brownish areas (more than several areas) in the esophagus on real-time non-magnified NBI endoscopy. All of the ultraminute IENs were visualized as unstained areas by real-time Lugol chromoendoscopy. Twenty of the 25 patients (80%) had multiple unstained areas (more than several areas) in the esophagus on real-time Lugol chromoendoscopy. The first questionnaire survey revealed that a significantly higher detection rate of the ultraminute IENs on non-magnified NBI endoscopy images compared with conventional white-light imaging endoscopy ones (100% vs. 72%, respectively: P < 0.0001). The second questionnaire survey revealed that presence rates of any magnified NBI endoscopy findings were not significantly different between HGIENs and LGIENs. Proliferation, dilation, and various shapes of intrapapillary capillary loops indicated remarkably high presence rates of more than 90% in both HGIENs and LGIENs. Six of 22 LGIENs (27%) and 3 of 11 HGIENs (27%) show a positive expression for p53. None of peri-IEN epithelia was positive for p53. A mean of Ki67 labeling index of LGIENs was 33% and that of HGIENs 36%. Ki67 labeling index was significantly greater in the LGIENs and HGIENs compared with that in the peri-IEN epithelia. There were no significant differences in p53 expression and Ki67 labeling index between the HGIENs and LGIENs. Non-magnified/magnified NBI endoscopy could facilitate visualization and characterization of ultraminute esophageal squamous IENs. The ultraminute HGIENs and LGIENs might have comparable features of magnified NBI endoscopy and immunohistochemistry.

Inhibition of the αvβ6 integrin leads to limited alteration of TGF-α-induced pulmonary fibrosis

A number of growth factors and signaling pathways regulate matrix deposition and fibroblast proliferation in the lung. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family of receptors and the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family are active in diverse biological processes and are central mediators in the initiation and maintenance of fibrosis in many diseases. Transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) is a ligand for the EGFR, and doxycycline (Dox)-inducible transgenic mice conditionally expressing TGF-α specifically in the lung epithelium develop progressive fibrosis accompanied with cachexia, changes in lung mechanics, and marked pleural thickening. Although recent studies demonstrate that EGFR activation modulates the fibroproliferative effects involved in the pathogenesis of TGF-β induced pulmonary fibrosis, in converse, the direct role of EGFR induction of the TGF-β pathway in the lung is unknown. The αvβ6 integrin is an important in vivo activator of TGF-β activation in the lung. Immunohistochemical analysis of αvβ6 protein expression and bronchoalveolar analysis of TGF-β pathway signaling indicates activation of the αvβ6/TGF-β pathway only at later time points after lung fibrosis was already established in the TGF-α model. To determine the contribution of the αvβ6/TGF-β pathway on the progression of established fibrotic disease, TGF-α transgenic mice were administered Dox for 4 wk, which leads to extensive fibrosis; these mice were then treated with a function-blocking anti-αvβ6 antibody with continued administration of Dox for an additional 4 wk. Compared with TGF-α transgenic mice treated with control antibody, αvβ6 inhibition significantly attenuated pleural thickening and altered the decline in lung mechanics. To test the effects of genetic loss of the β6 integrin, TGF-α transgenic mice were mated with β6-null mice and the degree of fibrosis was compared in adult mice following 8 wk of Dox administration. Genetic ablation of the β6 integrin attenuated histological and physiological changes in the lungs of TGF-α transgenic mice although a significant degree of fibrosis still developed. In summary, inhibition of the β6 integrin led to a modest, albeit significant, effect on pleural thickening and lung function decline observed with TGF-α-induced pulmonary fibrosis. These data support activation of the αvβ6/TGF-β pathway as a secondary effect contributing to TGF-α-induced pleural fibrosis and suggest a complex contribution of multiple mediators to the maintenance of progressive fibrosis in the lung.

Olanzapine increases hepatic glucose production through the activation of hypothalamic adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase

AIMS

To investigate the mechanism of the metabolic disturbance induced by the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine, we examined whether adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in the hypothalamus and hepatic glucose production are involved in the effect of olanzapine.

METHODS

Male 6-week-old ICR mice were used. Blood glucose levels were determined by the glucose oxidase method. The mRNA levels of gluconeogenic or glycolytic enzymes were measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). AMPK expression was measured by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Systemic injection of olanzapine increased blood glucose levels in both unfasted and fasted mice. However, the increase in fasted mice was less than that in unfasted mice. Central administration of olanzapine also increased the blood glucose levels in unfasted mice, but not in fasted mice. In a pyruvate tolerance test, olanzapine significantly increased blood glucose levels. In addition, olanzapine increased the mRNA levels of glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), a gluconeogenic enzyme, in the liver. Furthermore, olanzapine increased phosphorylated AMPK in the hypothalamus of unfasted mice, and olanzapine-induced hyperglycaemia was inhibited by the AMPK inhibitor compound C. Central administration of the AMPK activator AICAR significantly increased G6Pase mRNA levels in the liver and blood glucose levels. Moreover, both olanzapine- and AICAR-induced hyperglycaemia were attenuated by the β-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol, suggesting that olanzapine and AICAR induce hepatic glucose production through the sympathetic nervous system.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that olanzapine activates AMPK in the hypothalamus, which increases hepatic glucose production via the sympathetic nervous system.

Orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR116 regulates pulmonary surfactant pool size

Pulmonary surfactant levels within the alveoli are tightly regulated to maintain lung volumes and promote efficient gas exchange across the air/blood barrier. Quantitative and qualitative abnormalities in surfactant are associated with severe lung diseases in children and adults. Although the cellular and molecular mechanisms that control surfactant metabolism have been studied intensively, the critical molecular pathways that sense and regulate endogenous surfactant levels within the alveolus have not been identified and constitute a fundamental knowledge gap in the field. In this study, we demonstrate that expression of an orphan G protein-coupled receptor, GPR116, in the murine lung is developmentally regulated, reaching maximal levels 1 day after birth, and is highly expressed on the apical surface of alveolar type I and type II epithelial cells. To define the physiological role of GPR116 in vivo, mice with a targeted mutation of the Gpr116 locus, Gpr116(Δexon17), were generated. Gpr116(Δexon17) mice developed a profound accumulation of alveolar surfactant phospholipids at 4 weeks of age (12-fold) that was further increased at 20 weeks of age (30-fold). Surfactant accumulation in Gpr116(Δexon17) mice was associated with increased saturated phosphatidylcholine synthesis at 4 weeks and the presence of enlarged, lipid-laden macrophages, neutrophilia, and alveolar destruction at 20 weeks. mRNA microarray analyses indicated that P2RY2, a purinergic receptor known to mediate surfactant secretion, was induced in Gpr116(Δexon17) type II cells. Collectively, these data support the concept that GPR116 functions as a molecular sensor of alveolar surfactant lipid pool sizes by regulating surfactant secretion.

Activation of spinal cannabinoid CB2 receptors inhibits neuropathic pain in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

The role of spinal cannabinoid systems in neuropathic pain of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice was studied. In normal mice, injection of the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN-55,212-2 (1 and 3μg, i.t.) dose-dependently prolonged the tail-flick latency, whereas there were no changes with the injection of either cannabinoid CB1 (AM 251, 1 μg, i.t.) or CB2 (AM 630, 4 μg, i.t.) receptor antagonists. AM 251 (1 μg, i.t.), but not AM 630 (4 μg, i.t.), significantly inhibited the prolongation of the tail-flick latency induced by WIN-55,212-2 (3 μg, i.t.). In STZ-induced diabetic mice, the tail-flick latency was significantly shorter than that in normal mice. A low dose of WIN-55,212-2 (1 μg, i.t.) significantly recovered the tail-flick latency in STZ-induced diabetic mice. The effect of WIN-55,212-2 (1 μg, i.t.) in STZ-induced diabetic mice was significantly inhibited by AM 630 (4 μg, i.t.), but not AM 251 (1 μg). The selective cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist L-759,656 (19 and 38 μg, i.t.) also dose-dependently recovered the tail-flick latency in STZ-induced diabetic mice, and this recovery was inhibited by AM 630 (4 μg, i.t.). The protein levels of cannabinoid CB1 receptors, CB2 receptors and diacylglycerol lipase α (DGL-α), the enzyme that synthesizes endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol, in the spinal cord were examined using Western blotting. The protein levels of both cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors were increased in STZ-induced diabetic mice, whereas the protein level of DGL-α was significantly decreased. These results indicate that spinal cannabinoid systems are changed in diabetic mice and suggest that cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonists might have an ability to recover diabetic neuropathic pain.

Disruption of sorting nexin 5 causes respiratory failure associated with undifferentiated alveolar epithelial type I cells in mice

Sorting nexin 5 (Snx5) has been posited to regulate the degradation of epidermal growth factor receptor and the retrograde trafficking of cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor/insulin-like growth factor II receptor. Snx5 has also been suggested to interact with Mind bomb-1, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates the activation of Notch signaling. However, the in vivo functions of Snx5 are largely unknown. Here, we report that disruption of the Snx5 gene in mice (Snx5^-/- mice) resulted in partial perinatal lethality; 40% of Snx5^-/- mice died shortly after birth due to cyanosis, reduced air space in the lungs, and respiratory failure. Histological analysis revealed that Snx5^-/- mice exhibited thickened alveolar walls associated with undifferentiated alveolar epithelial type I cells. In contrast, alveolar epithelial type II cells were intact, exhibiting normal surfactant synthesis and secretion. Although the expression levels of surfactant proteins and saturated phosphatidylcholine in the lungs of Snx5^-/- mice were comparable to those of Snx5^+/+ mice, the expression levels of T1α, Aqp5, and Rage, markers for distal alveolar epithelial type I cells, were significantly decreased in Snx5^-/- mice. These results demonstrate that Snx5 is necessary for the differentiation of alveolar epithelial type I cells, which may underlie the adaptation to air breathing at birth.

CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-α suppresses lung tumor development in mice through the p38α MAP kinase pathway

The transcription factor CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα) is a basic leucine zipper transcription factor and is expressed in alveolar type II cells, alveolar macrophages and Clara cells in the lung. Although decrease or absence of C/EBPα expression in human non-small cell lung cancer suggests a possible role of C/EBPα as a lung tumor suppressor, there is no direct proof for this hypothesis. In this study, we investigated, for the first time, the role of C/EBPα in lung tumors in vivo using transgenic mice with lung epithelial specific conditional deletion of Cebpa (Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice) and a urethane-induced lung tumor model. C/EBPα expression in the lung was dispensable, and its deletion was not oncogenic under unstressed conditions. However, at 28 wk after urethane injection, the number and size of tumors and the tumor burden were significantly higher in Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice than in littermate control mice. Urethane-injected Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice showed highly proliferative adenomas and adenocarcinomas in the lung, and survival time after urethane-injection was significantly shorter than that in control mice. In control mice, C/EBPα was strongly induced in the tumor tissues at 28 weeks after urethane-injection, but became weakened or absent as tumors progressed after long-term observation for over 1 year. Using intraperitoneal injection of p38 inhibitor (SB203580), we demonstrated that the induction of C/EBPα is strongly regulated by the p38 MAP kinase in murine alveolar epithelial cells. A high correlation was demonstrated between the expression of C/EBPα and p38α MAP kinase in tumor cells, suggesting that C/EBPα silencing in tumor cells is caused by down-regulation of p38α MAP kinase. In conclusion, the role of C/EBPα as a lung tumor suppressor was demonstrated for the first time in the present study, and the extinguished C/EBPα expression through p38α inactivation leads tumor promotion and progression.

An MRI system for imaging neonates in the NICU: initial feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Transporting premature infants from a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) to a radiology department for MRI has medical risks and logistical challenges.

OBJECTIVE

To develop a small 1.5-T MRI system for neonatal imaging that can be easily installed in the NICU and to evaluate its performance using a sheep model of human prematurity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A 1.5-T MRI system designed for orthopedic use was adapted for neonatal imaging. The system was used for MRI examinations of the brain, chest and abdomen in 12 premature lambs during the first hours of life. Spin-echo, fast spin-echo and gradient-echo MR images were evaluated by two pediatric radiologists.

RESULTS

All animals remained physiologically stable throughout the imaging sessions. Animals were imaged at two or three time points. Seven brain MRI examinations were performed in seven different animals, 23 chest examinations in 12 animals and 19 abdominal examinations in 11 animals. At each anatomical location, high-quality images demonstrating good spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio and tissue contrast were routinely obtained within 30 min using standard clinical protocols.

CONCLUSION

Our preliminary experience demonstrates the feasibility and potential of the neonatal MRI system to provide state-of-the-art MRI capabilities within the NICU. Advantages include overall reduced cost and site demands, lower acoustic noise, improved ease of access and reduced medical risk to the neonate.

Transcriptional programs controlling perinatal lung maturation

The timing of lung maturation is controlled precisely by complex genetic and cellular programs. Lung immaturity following preterm birth frequently results in Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) and Broncho-Pulmonary Dysplasia (BPD), which are leading causes of mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. Mechanisms synchronizing gestational length and lung maturation remain to be elucidated. In this study, we designed a genome-wide mRNA expression time-course study from E15.5 to Postnatal Day 0 (PN0) using lung RNAs from C57BL/6J (B6) and A/J mice that differ in gestational length by ∼30 hr (B6<A/J). Comprehensive bioinformatics and functional genomics analyses were used to identify key regulators, bioprocesses and transcriptional networks controlling lung maturation. We identified both temporal and strain dependent gene expression patterns during lung maturation. For time dependent changes, cell adhesion, vasculature development, and lipid metabolism/transport were major bioprocesses induced during the saccular stage of lung development at E16.5–E17.5. CEBPA, PPARG, VEGFA, CAV1 and CDH1 were found to be key signaling and transcriptional regulators of these processes. Innate defense/immune responses were induced at later gestational ages (E18.5–20.5), STAT1, AP1, and EGFR being important regulators of these responses. Expression of RNAs associated with the cell cycle and chromatin assembly was repressed during prenatal lung maturation and was regulated by FOXM1, PLK1, chromobox, and high mobility group families of transcription factors. Strain dependent lung mRNA expression differences peaked at E18.5. At this time, mRNAs regulating surfactant and innate immunity were more abundantly expressed in lungs of B6 (short gestation) than in A/J (long gestation) mice, while expression of genes involved in chromatin assembly and histone modification were expressed at lower levels in B6 than in A/J mice. The present study systemically mapped key regulators, bioprocesses, and transcriptional networks controlling lung maturation, providing the basis for new therapeutic strategies to enhance lung function in preterm infants.

SP-B and SP-C containing new synthetic surfactant for treatment of extremely immature lamb lung

Although superiority of synthetic surfactant over animal-driven surfactant has been known, there is no synthetic surfactant commercially available at present. Many trials have been made to develop synthetic surfactant comparable in function to animal-driven surfactant. The efficacy of treatment with a new synthetic surfactant (CHF5633) containing dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylglycerol, SP-B analog, and SP-C analog was evaluated using immature newborn lamb model and compared with animal lung tissue-based surfactant Survanta. Lambs were treated with a clinical dose of 200 mg/kg CHF5633, 100 mg/kg Survanta, or air after 15 min initial ventilation. All the lambs treated with air died of respiratory distress within 90 min of age. During a 5 h study period, Pco(2) was maintained at 55 mmHg with 24 cmH(2)O peak inspiratory pressure for both groups. The preterm newborn lamb lung functions were dramatically improved by CHF5633 treatment. Slight, but significant superiority of CHF5633 over Survanta was demonstrated in tidal volume at 20 min and dynamic lung compliance at 20 and 300 min. The ultrastructure of CHF5633 was large with uniquely aggregated lipid particles. Increased uptake of CHF5633 by alveolar monocytes for catabolism was demonstrated by microphotograph, which might be associated with the higher treatment dose of CHF5633. The higher catabolism of CHF5633 was also suggested by the similar amount of surfactant lipid in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) between CHF5633 and Survanta groups, despite the 2-fold higher treatment dose of CHF5633. Under the present ventilation protocol, lung inflammation was minimal for both groups, evaluated by inflammatory cell numbers in BALF and expression of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNFα mRNA in the lung tissue. In conclusion, the new synthetic surfactant CHF5633 was effective in treating extremely immature newborn lambs with surfactant deficiency during the 5 h study period.

CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α regulates the protease/antiprotease balance required for bronchiolar epithelium regeneration

Many transcription factors that regulate lung morphogenesis during development are reactivated to mediate repairs of the injured adult lung. We hypothesized that CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBPα), a transcription factor critical for perinatal lung maturation, regulates genes required for the normal repair of the bronchiolar epithelium after injury. Transgenic Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice, in which Cebpa was conditionally deleted from Clara cells and Type II cells after birth, were used in this study. Airway injury was induced in mice by the intraperitoneal administration of naphthalene to ablate bronchiolar epithelial cells. Although the deletion of C/EBPα did not influence lung structure and function under unstressed conditions, C/EBPα was required for the normal repair of terminal bronchiolar epithelium after naphthalene injury. To identify cellular processes that are influenced by C/EBPα during repair, mRNA microarray was performed on terminal bronchiolar epithelial cells isolated by laser-capture microdissection. Normal repair of the terminal bronchiolar epithelium was highly associated with the mRNAs regulating antiprotease activities, and their induction required C/EBPα. The defective deposition of fibronectin in Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice was associated with increased protease activity and delayed differentiation of FoxJ1-expressing ciliated cells. The fibronectin and ciliated cells were restored by the intratracheal treatment of Cebpα(Δ/Δ) mice with the serine protease inhibitor. In conclusion, C/EBPα regulates the expression of serine protease inhibitors that are required for the normal increase of fibronectin and the restoration of ciliated cells after injury. Treatment with serine protease inhibitor may aid in the recovery of injured bronchiolar epithelial cells, and prevent common chronic lung diseases.

Activation of sterol-response element-binding proteins (SREBP) in alveolar type II cells enhances lipogenesis causing pulmonary lipotoxicity

Pulmonary inflammation is associated with altered lipid synthesis and clearance related to diabetes, obesity, and various inherited metabolic disorders. In many tissues, lipogenesis is regulated at the transcriptional level by the activity of sterol-response element-binding proteins (SREBP). The role of SREBP activation in the regulation of lipid metabolism in the lung was assessed in mice in which both Insig1 and Insig2 genes, encoding proteins that bind and inhibit SREBPs in the endoplasmic reticulum, were deleted in alveolar type 2 cells. Although deletion of either Insig1 or Insig2 did not alter SREBP activity or lipid homeostasis, deletion of both genes (Insig1/2(Δ/Δ) mice) activated SREBP1, causing marked accumulation of lipids that consisted primarily of cholesterol esters and triglycerides in type 2 epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages. Neutral lipids accumulated in type 2 cells in association with the increase in mRNAs regulating fatty acid, cholesterol synthesis, and inflammation. Although bronchoalveolar lavage fluid phosphatidylcholine was modestly decreased, lung phospholipid content and lung function were maintained. Insig1/2(Δ/Δ) mice developed lung inflammation and airspace abnormalities associated with the accumulation of lipids in alveolar type 2 cells, alveolar macrophages, and within alveolar spaces. Deletion of Insig1/2 activated SREBP-enhancing lipogenesis in respiratory epithelial cells resulting in lipotoxicity-related lung inflammation and tissue remodeling.

Intra-amniotic LPS and antenatal betamethasone: inflammation and maturation in preterm lamb lungs

The proinflammatory stimulus of chorioamnionitis is commonly associated with preterm delivery. Women at risk of preterm delivery receive antenatal glucocorticoids to functionally mature the fetal lung. However, the effects of the combined exposures of chorioamnionitis and antenatal glucocorticoids on the fetus are poorly understood. Time-mated ewes with singleton fetuses received an intra-amniotic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) either preceding or following maternal intramuscular betamethasone 7 or 14 days before delivery, and the fetuses were delivered at 120 days gestational age (GA) (term = 150 days GA). Gestation matched controls received intra-amniotic and maternal intramuscular saline. Compared with saline controls, intra-amniotic LPS increased inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage and myeloperoxidase, Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 mRNA, PU.1, CD3, and Foxp3-positive cells in the fetal lung. LPS-induced lung maturation measured as increased airway surfactant and improved lung gas volumes. Intra-amniotic LPS-induced inflammation persisted until 14 days after exposure. Betamethasone treatment alone induced modest lung maturation but, when administered before intra-amniotic LPS, suppressed lung inflammation. Interestingly, betamethasone treatment after LPS did not counteract inflammation but enhanced lung maturation. We conclude that the order of exposures of intra-amniotic LPS or maternal betamethasone had large effects on fetal lung inflammation and maturation.

Maternal synchronization of gestational length and lung maturation

Among all mammals, fetal growth and organ maturation must be precisely synchronized with gestational length to optimize survival at birth. Lack of pulmonary maturation is the major cause of infant mortality in preterm birth. Whether fetal or maternal genotypes influence the close relationship between the length of gestation and lung function at birth is unknown. Structural and biochemical indicators of pulmonary maturity were measured in two mouse strains whose gestational length differed by one day. Shorter gestation in C57BL/6J mice was associated with advanced morphological and biochemical pulmonary development and better perinatal survival when compared to A/J pups born prematurely. After ovarian transplantation, A/J pups were born early in C57BL/6J dams and survived after birth, consistent with maternal control gestational length. Expression of genes critical for perinatal lung function was assessed in A/J pups born after ovarian transfer. A subset of mRNAs important for perinatal respiratory adaptation was selectively induced in the A/J pups born after ovarian transfer. mRNAs precociously induced after ovarian transfer indicated an important role for the transcription factors C/EBPα and CREB in maternally induced lung maturation. We conclude that fetal lung maturation is determined by both fetal and maternal genotypes. Ovarian transfer experiments demonstrated that maternal genotype determines the timing of birth and can influence fetal lung growth and maturation to ensure perinatal survival.

Conditional hypoxia inducible factor-1α induction in embryonic pulmonary epithelium impairs maturation and augments lymphangiogenesis

Hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) 1a, EPAS1 and NEPAS are expressed in the embryonic mouse lung and each isoform exhibits distinct spatiotemporal expression patterns throughout morphogenesis. To further assess the role of the HIF1a isoform in lung epithelial cell differentiation and homeostasis, we created transgenic mice that express a constitutively active isoform of human HIF-1a (HIF-1a three point mutant (TPM)), in a doxycycline-dependent manner. Expression of HIF1a TPM in the developing pulmonary epithelium resulted in lung hypoplasia characterized by defective branching morphogenesis, altered cellular energetics and impaired epithelial maturation, culminating in neonatal lethality at birth from severe respiratory distress. Histological and biochemical analyses revealed expanded glycogen pools in the pulmonary epithelial cells at E18.5, concomitant with decreased pulmonary surfactant, suggesting a delay or an arrest in maturation. Importantly, these defects occurred in the absence of apoptosis or necrosis. In addition, sub-pleural hemorrhaging was evident as early as E14.5 in HIF1a TPM lungs, despite normal patterning of the blood vasculature, consistent with defects in endothelial barrier function. Epithelial expression of HIF1a TPM also resulted in increased VEGFA and VEGFC production, an increase in the number of lymphatic vessels and indirect activation of the multiple Notch pathway components in endothelial precursor cells. Collectively, these data indicate that HIF-1a protein levels in the pulmonary epithelium must be tightly controlled for proper development of the epithelial and mesenchymal compartments.

First Report of Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus Infecting Cucumber in Central Java, Indonesia

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is an important vegetable in Indonesia. Cucumber plants showing yellowy green mosaic symptoms on leaves were observed in Klaten, Central Java, Indonesia in August 2008. Total DNAs were extracted from symptomatic leaves, and the putative viral genomes were amplified by PCR with the Deng A and B primers (2). The PCR-amplified viral genomic DNA was sequenced. The remaining part of DNA-A was amplified with two primers sets (ToLCNDV-A1F 5'-ACCAACAGGCCGATGAACA-3' and ToLCNDV-A1R 5'-TTCCCACTATCTTCCTGTGCA-3'; ToLCNDV-A2F 5'-TCGAGTGTGATRAAGAYTGCA-3' and ToLCNDV-A2R 5'-ACTAACTAAGCATTGCAGCGTC-3' [R = A and G, Y = C and T]) and sequenced. The remaining part of DNA-B was amplified with two primers sets (ToLCNDV-B1F 5'-ARGAGTTYMCRYYTGTGGA-3' and ToLCNDV-B1R 5'-TKCWGTYGGTCATGTCGT-3'; ToLCNDV-B2F 5'-TCYGTCAATCKCATGTCGYGT-3' and ToLCNDV-B2R 5'-CCTTACGCGTATAYTGTYTRGA-3' [K = G and T, M = A and C, W = A and T]) and sequenced. Full-length DNA-A (2,739 nt; GenBank Accession No. AB613825) and DNA-B (2,690 nt; GenBank Accession No. AB613826) sequences of a bipartite Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (ToLCNDV) from Central Java were obtained and they were most similar to the corresponding sequences of both DNA-A and DNA-B of ToLCNDV-[cucumber:Thailand] (DNA-A, GenBank Accession No. AB330079; DNA-B, GenBank Accession No. AB330080) at 95.5 and 91.0% nucleotide identities, respectively. On the basis of high nucleotide sequence identity with ToLCNDV-[cucumber:Thailand] and the demarcation criteria in species identification (3), the virus isolate from the diseased cucumber in Central Java is considered as a variant of ToLCNDV and was accordingly named ToLCNDV-Indonesia[Indonesia:Java:Cucumber:2008] (ToLCNDV-ID[ID:Jav:Cuc:08]). Although the importance of begomovirus diseases on chili pepper (Solanaceae) is currently highly noticed in Indonesia (1), ToLCNDV was newly isolated from cucumber (Cucurbitaceae) in this study. Therefore, farmers in Indonesia should pay more attention to controlling begomovirus vectors, white flies, on Cucurbitaceae. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the natural occurrence of ToLCNDV in Indonesia. References: (1) P. J. D. Barro et al. Biol. Invas.10:411, 2008. (2) D. Deng et al. Ann. Appl. Biol. 125:327, 1994. (3) C. M. Fauquet et al. Arch. Virol. 153:783, 2008.

MEK-ERK pathway modulation ameliorates pulmonary fibrosis associated with epidermal growth factor receptor activation

Pulmonary fibrosis remains a significant public health burden with no proven therapies. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/MAPK kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling cascade is a major pathway controlling cellular processes associated with fibrogenesis, including growth, proliferation, and survival. Activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway is detected in the lungs of human fibrosis samples; however, the effect of modulating the pathway in vivo is unknown. Overexpression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-α in the lung epithelium of transgenic mice causes a progressive pulmonary fibrosis associated with increased MEK/ERK activation localized primarily in mesenchymal cells. To determine the role of the MEK pathway in the induction of TGF-α-induced lung fibrosis, TGF-α was overexpressed for 4 weeks while mice were simultaneously treated with the specific MEK inhibitor, ARRY-142886 (ARRY). Treatment with ARRY prevented increases in lung cell proliferation and total lung collagen, attenuated production of extracellular matrix genes, and protected mice from changes in lung function. ARRY administered as a rescue treatment after fibrosis was already established inhibited fibrosis progression, as assessed by lung histology, changes in body weights, extracellular matrix gene expression, and lung mechanics. These findings demonstrate that MEK inhibition prevents progression of established fibrosis in the TGF-α model, and provides proof of concept of targeting the MEK pathway in fibrotic lung disease.

Molecular analysis of new isolates of Tomato leaf curl Philippines virus and an associated betasatellite occurring in the Philippines

Three new begomovirus isolates and one betasatellite were obtained from a tomato plant exhibiting leaf curl symptom in Laguna, the Philippines. Typical begomovirus DNA components representing the three isolates (PH01, PH02 and PH03) were cloned, and their full-length sequences were determined to be 2754 to 2746 nucleotides. The genome organizations of these isolates were similar to those of other Old World monopartite begomoviruses. The sequence data indicated that PH01 and PH02 were variants of strain B of the species Tomato leaf curl Philippines virus, while PH03 was a variant of strain A of the species Tomato leaf curl Philippines virus. These isolates were designated ToLCPV-B[PH:Lag1:06], ToLCPV-B[PH:Lag2:06], and ToLCPV-A[PH:Lag3:06], respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the present isolates form a separate monophyletic cluster with indigenous begomoviruses reported earlier in the Philippines. A betasatellite isolated from same sample belongs to the betasatellite species Tomato leaf curl Philippines betasatellite and designated Tomato leaf curl Philippines betasatellite-[Philippines:Laguna1:2006], ToLCPHB-[PH:Lag1:06]. When co-inoculated with this betasatellite, tomato leaf curl Philippines virus induced severe symptoms in N. benthamiana and Solanum lycopersicum plants. Using a PVX-mediated transient assay, we found that the C4 and C2 proteins of tomato leaf curl Philippines virus and the βC1 protein of ToLCPHB-[PH:Lag1:06] function as a suppressor of RNA silencing.

Leptin does not influence surfactant synthesis in fetal sheep and mice lungs

In the fetus, leptin in the circulation increases at late gestation and likely influences fetal organ development. Increased surfactant by leptin was previously demonstrated in vitro using fetal lung explant. We hypothesized that leptin treatment given to fetal sheep and pregnant mice might increase surfactant synthesis in the fetal lung in vivo. At 122-124 days gestational age (term: 150 days), fetal sheep were injected with 5 mg of leptin or vehicle using ultrasound guidance. Three and a half days after injection, preterm lambs were delivered, and lung function was studied during 30-min ventilation, followed by pulmonary surfactant components analyses. Pregnant A/J mice were given 30 or 300 mg of leptin or vehicle by intraperitoneal injection according to five study protocols with different doses, number of treatments, and gestational ages to treat. Surfactant components were analyzed in fetal lung 24 h after the last maternal treatment. Leptin injection given to fetal sheep increased fetal body weight. Control and leptin-treated groups were similar in lung function (preterm newborn lamb), surfactant components pool sizes (lamb and fetal mice), and expression of genes related to surfactant synthesis in the lung (fetal mice). Likewise, saturated phosphatidylcholine and phospholipid were normal in mice lungs with absence of circulating leptin (ob/ob mice) at all ages. These studies coincided in findings that neither exogenously given leptin nor deficiency of leptin influenced fetal lung maturation or surfactant pool sizes in vivo. Furthermore, the key genes critically required for surfactant synthesis were not affected by leptin treatment.

Inhibitors of inflammation and endogenous surfactant pool size as modulators of lung injury with initiation of ventilation in preterm sheep

BACKGROUND

Increased pro-inflammatory cytokines in tracheal aspirates correlate with the development of BPD in preterm infants. Ventilation of preterm lambs increases pro-inflammatory cytokines and causes lung inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

We tested the hypothesis that selective inhibitors of pro-inflammatory signaling would decrease lung inflammation induced by ventilation in preterm newborn lambs. We also examined if the variability in injury response was explained by variations in the endogenous surfactant pool size.

METHODS

Date-mated preterm lambs (n = 28) were operatively delivered and mechanically ventilated to cause lung injury (tidal volume escalation to 15 mL/kg by 15 min at age). The lambs then were ventilated with 8 mL/kg tidal volume for 1 h 45 min. Groups of animals randomly received specific inhibitors for IL-8, IL-1, or NF-κB. Unventilated lambs (n = 7) were the controls. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung samples were used to quantify inflammation. Saturated phosphatidylcholine (Sat PC) was measured in BALF fluid and the data were stratified based on a level of 5 μmol/kg (~8 mg/kg surfactant).

RESULTS

The inhibitors did not decrease the cytokine levels or inflammatory response. The inflammation increased as Sat PC pool size in BALF decreased. Ventilated lambs with a Sat PC level > 5 μmol/kg had significantly decreased markers of injury and lung inflammation compared with those lambs with < 5 μmol/kg.

CONCLUSION

Lung injury caused by high tidal volumes at birth were decreased when endogenous surfactant pool sizes were larger. Attempts to decrease inflammation by blocking IL-8, IL-1 or NF-κB were unsuccessful.

Lymphatic ontogeny and effect of hypoplasia in developing lung

The pulmonary lymphatic vasculature plays a vital role in maintaining fluid homeostasis required for efficient gas exchange at capillary alveolar barriers and contributes to lung fluid clearance at birth. To further understanding of pulmonary lymphatic function at birth, lineage-tracing analysis of mouse lung was used. Lineage analysis confirmed that lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) bud from extrapulmonary lymphatics and demonstrated that LEC migrate into developing lung along precise pathways. LEC cluster first in the primary bronchovascular region then along the secondary broncho-arterial regions and along veins. Small lymphatic vessels in distal lung develop from LEC that have migrated into lung mesenchyme from the extrapulmonary lymphatics. Finally, proximal and distal lymphatics remodel to form vessels with lumens in stereotypical locations. Loss of function analysis with lung-specific expression of a secreted form of the extracellular domain of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (dnR3) caused significant embryonic pulmonary lymphatic hypoplasia with fourfold reduction in distal LEC. Lung-specific expression of dnR3 did not affect blood vascular development, overall lung organogenesis or lymphatic development in other organs. Neonatal mice with pulmonary lymphatic hypoplasia developed respiratory distress with significantly increased mortality. During the transition to air breathing, lymphatic hypoplasia adversely affected fetal lung fluid clearance as determined by wet/dry weight analysis and morphometric analysis of bronchovascular cuffing and mesenchymal thickening. Surfactant synthesis was unaffected. Together, these data demonstrate that lung lymphatics develop autonomously and that pulmonary lymphatic hypoplasia is detrimental to survival of the neonate due to impaired lung fluid clearance.

Patient-derived granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor autoantibodies reproduce pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in nonhuman primates

RATIONALE

Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) autoantibodies (GMAb) are strongly associated with idiopathic pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) and are believed to be important in its pathogenesis. However, levels of GMAb do not correlate with disease severity and GMAb are also present at low levels in healthy individuals.

OBJECTIVES

Our primary objective was to determine whether human GMAb would reproduce PAP in healthy primates. A secondary objective was to determine the concentration of GMAb resulting in loss of GM-CSF signaling in vivo (i.e., critical threshold).

METHODS

Nonhuman primates (Macaca fascicularis) were injected with highly purified, PAP patient-derived GMAb in dose-ranging (2.2-50 mg) single and multiple administration studies, and after blocking antihuman immunoglobulin immune responses, in chronic administration studies maintaining serum levels greater than 40 microg/ml for up to 11 months.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

GMAb blocked GM-CSF signaling causing (1) a milky-appearing bronchoalveolar lavage fluid containing increased surfactant lipids and proteins; (2) enlarged, foamy, surfactant-filled alveolar macrophages with reduced PU.1 and PPARgamma mRNA, and reduced tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion; (3) pulmonary leukocytosis; (4) increased serum surfactant protein-D; and (5) impaired neutrophil functions. GM-CSF signaling varied inversely with GMAb concentration below a critical threshold of 5 microg/ml, which was similar in lungs and blood and to the value observed in patients with PAP.

CONCLUSIONS

GMAb reproduced the molecular, cellular, and histopathologic features of PAP in healthy primates, demonstrating that GMAb directly cause PAP. These results have implications for therapy of PAP and help define the therapeutic window for potential use of GMAb to treat other disorders.

Isolation and characterization of virus-specific double-stranded DNA from tissues infected by bean golden mosaic virus

A double-stranded (ds) DNA which may be a replication intermediate was isolated from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. "Top Crop") leaves systemically infected with bean golden mosaic virus, a whitefly-transmitted plant virus with a genome of circular single-stranded (ss) DNA. The isolation method used phenol/chloroform extraction, hydroxyapatite column chromatography, and rate-zonal centrifugation. The dsDNA had sequences complementary to those of viral DNA. The guanine-plus-cytosine content was 35%, and the sedimentation coefficient in alkaline sucrose density gradients was similar to that of viral ssDNA. Digestion of the dsDNA by Hha I endonuclease produced fragments that corresponded exactly in number and size with those produced by complete digestion of circular viral ssDNA by Hha I, when the fragments were denatured and analyzed on polyacrylamide gels. The dsDNA molecule was a circular structure with one discontinuity in one strand; hybridization results suggest that some of a the dsDNA has a discontinuity in the viral strand and some has a discontinuity in the nonviral strand. On the basis of these structures for the dsDNA, a preliminary model for replication of viral DNA is discussed.

Characterization of double-stranded ribonucleic acid in tobacco leaves

Double-stranded RNA was isolated from tobacco leaves and characterized in terms of base composition, density, and nuclease resistance. Although its role in the plant's physiology is not clear, evidence was adduced that it is the product of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase previously shown to occur in this and other plants. The fact that twice as much fully than partially double-stranded RNA appears to be made favors a regulatory role for the double-stranded RNA rather than a transcriptional intermediate role.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of tobacco plants

Several properties of RNA polymerase (nucleosidetriphosphate:RNA nucleotidyltransferase, EC 2.7.7.6) active fractions obtained from tobacco plants, be they uninfected, infected with tobacco mosaic virus, or infected with tobacco necrosis virus, were compared. By the seven criteria tested, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from these three sources behaved the same, although its activity is greatly but variably stimulated by the two virus infections. It thus appears probable that these two viruses do not code for this enzyme, but rely for their replication on their ability to stimulate production of a host enzyme. The conclusion that cells contain RNA replicating capability represents a modification of the central dogma of molecular biology.

LPCAT1 regulates surfactant phospholipid synthesis and is required for transitioning to air breathing in mice

Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), which is the leading cause of death in premature infants, is caused by surfactant deficiency. The most critical and abundant phospholipid in pulmonary surfactant is saturated phosphatidylcholine (SatPC), which is synthesized in alveolar type II cells de novo or by the deacylation-reacylation of existing phosphatidylcholine species. We recently cloned and partially characterized a mouse enzyme with characteristics of a lung lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase (LPCAT1) that we predicted would be involved in surfactant synthesis. Here, we describe our studies investigating whether LPCAT1 is required for pulmonary surfactant homeostasis. To address this issue, we generated mice bearing a hypomorphic allele of Lpcat1 (referred to herein as Lpcat1GT/GT mice) using a genetrap strategy. Newborn Lpcat1GT/GT mice showed varying perinatal mortality from respiratory failure, with affected animals demonstrating hallmarks of respiratory distress such as atelectasis and hyaline membranes. Lpcat1 mRNA levels were reduced in newborn Lpcat1GT/GT mice and directly correlated with SatPC content, LPCAT1 activity, and survival. Surfactant isolated from dead Lpcat1GT/GT mice failed to reduce minimum surface tension to wild-type levels. Collectively, these data demonstrate that full LPCAT1 activity is required to achieve the levels of SatPC essential for the transition to air breathing.

Identification of the virulence factors and suppressors of posttranscriptional gene silencing encoded by Ageratum yellow vein virus, a monopartite begomovirus

Ageratum yellow vein disease (AYVD) is caused by the association of a Tomato leaf curl Java betasatellite [Indonesia:Indonesia 1:2003] (ToLCJB-[ID:ID1:03]) with a begomovirus component. Our previous results demonstrated that ToLCJB-[ID:ID:03] is essential for induction of leaf curl symptoms in plants and transgene expression of its betaC1 gene in Nicotiana benthamiana plants induces virus-like symptoms. Here we show that Ageratum yellow vein virus-Indonesia [Indonesia: Tomato] (AYVV-ID[ID:Tom]) alone could systemically infect the plants and induced upward leaf curl symptoms. ToLCJB-[ID:ID1:03] was required, in addition to AYVV-ID[ID:Tom], for induction of severe downward leaf curl disease in N. benthamiana plants. However, DNAbeta01fsbetaC1, which encompasses a frameshift mutation, did not induce severe symptoms in N. benthamiana when co-inoculated with AYVV-ID[ID:Tom]. The infectivity analysis of AYVV-ID[ID:Tom] and its associated betasatellite encoded genes using Potato virus X (PVX) vector were carried out in N. benthamiana, indicate that the V2 and betaC1 genes are symptom determinants. We have identified the DNA encoded V2 and its betasatellite, ToLCJB-[ID:ID1:03], encoded betaC1 proteins as efficient silencing suppressors of posttranscriptional gene silencing (PTGS) by using an Agrobacterium co-infiltration or heterologous PVX vector assays. However, the results also showed weak suppression of gene silencing activities for C2 and C4 induced by GFP and mRNA associated with GFP was detected. Furthermore, confocal imaging analysis of ToLCJB-[ID:ID1:03] betaC1 in the epidermal cells of N. benthamiana shows that this protein is accumulated towards the periphery of the cell and around the nucleus, however, V2 accumulated in the cell cytoplasm, C4 associated with plasma membrane and C2 exclusively targeted into nucleus. In this study, we identified as many as four distinct suppressors of RNA silencing encoded by AYVV-ID[ID:Tom] and its cognate betasatellite in the family Geminiviridae, counteracting innate antiviral response.

Conditional deletion of Abca3 in alveolar type II cells alters surfactant homeostasis in newborn and adult mice

ATP-binding cassette A3 (ABCA3) is a lipid transport protein required for synthesis and storage of pulmonary surfactant in type II cells in the alveoli. Abca3 was conditionally deleted in respiratory epithelial cells (Abca3(Δ/Δ)) in vivo. The majority of mice in which Abca3 was deleted in alveolar type II cells died shortly after birth from respiratory distress related to surfactant deficiency. Approximately 30% of the Abca3(Δ/Δ) mice survived after birth. Surviving Abca3(Δ/Δ) mice developed emphysema in the absence of significant pulmonary inflammation. Staining of lung tissue and mRNA isolated from alveolar type II cells demonstrated that ∼50% of alveolar type II cells lacked ABCA3. Phospholipid content and composition were altered in lung tissue, lamellar bodies, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from adult Abca3(Δ/Δ) mice. In adult Abca3(Δ/Δ) mice, cells lacking ABCA3 had decreased expression of mRNAs associated with lipid synthesis and transport. FOXA2 and CCAAT enhancer-binding protein-α, transcription factors known to regulate genes regulating lung lipid metabolism, were markedly decreased in cells lacking ABCA3. Deletion of Abca3 disrupted surfactant lipid synthesis in a cell-autonomous manner. Compensatory surfactant synthesis was initiated in ABCA3-sufficient type II cells, indicating that surfactant homeostasis is a highly regulated process that includes sensing and coregulation among alveolar type II cells.

Surfactant protein-d inhibits lung inflammation caused by ventilation in premature newborn lambs

RATIONALE

Premature newborns frequently require manual ventilation for resuscitation during which lung injury occurs. Although surfactant protein (SP)-D regulates pulmonary inflammation, SP-D levels are low in the preterm lung. Commercial surfactants for treatment of respiratory distress syndrome do not contain SP-D.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether addition of recombinant human SP-D (rhSP-D) to commercial surfactant influences lung inflammation in ventilated premature newborn lambs.

METHODS

Prematurely delivered lambs (130 d gestation age) were resuscitated with 100% O(2) and peak inspiratory pressure 40 cm H(2)O for 20 minutes and then treated with Survanta or Survanta containing rhSP-D. Ventilation was then changed to regulate tidal volume at 8 to 9 ml/kg. At 5 hours of age lambs were killed for sample collection.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Sequential blood gas and tidal volume were similar in lambs treated with or without rhSP-D, indicating that lung immaturity and ventilatory stress used to support premature lambs were comparable between the two groups. Ventilation caused pulmonary inflammation in lambs treated with surfactant alone. In contrast, surfactant containing rhSP-D decreased neutrophil numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and decreased neutrophil elastase activity in lung tissue. IL-8 mRNA and IL-8 protein were significantly decreased in the +rhSP-D group lamb lungs, to 20% of those in controls. The addition of rhSP-D also rendered Survanta more resistant to plasma protein inhibition of surfactant function.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with rhSP-D-containing surfactant inhibited lung inflammation and enhanced the resistance of surfactant to inhibition, supporting its potential usefulness for prevention of lung injury in the preterm newborn.

Inhibition of PI3K by PX-866 prevents transforming growth factor-alpha-induced pulmonary fibrosis

Transforming growth factor-alpha (TGFalpha) is a ligand for the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). EGFR activation is associated with fibroproliferative processes in human lung disease and animal models of pulmonary fibrosis. EGFR signaling activates several intracellular signaling pathways including phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K). We previously showed that induction of lung-specific TGFalpha expression in transgenic mice caused progressive pulmonary fibrosis over a 4-week period. The increase in levels of phosphorylated Akt, detected after 1 day of doxycycline-induced TGFalpha expression, was blocked by treatment with the PI3K inhibitor, PX-866. Daily administration of PX-866 during TGFalpha induction prevented increases in lung collagen and airway resistance as well as decreases in lung compliance. Treatment of mice with oral PX-866 4 weeks after the induction of TGFalpha prevented additional weight loss and further increases in total collagen, and attenuated changes in pulmonary mechanics. These data show that PI3K is activated in TGFalpha/EGFR-mediated pulmonary fibrosis and support further studies to determine the role of PI3K activation in human lung fibrotic disease, which could be amenable to targeted therapy.

Saturated Phosphatidylcholine Secretion and the Effect of Natural Surfactant on Premature and Term Lambs Ventilated for 2 Days

Lambs prematurely delivered by cesarean section and term lambs were supported on ventilators and studied over a period of 2 days. Sequential measurements of ventilatory requirements, lung compliance, and arterial pH, pO2, and pCO2 values documented the course of the lung disease. In five premature lambs the pCO2 increased to 77 +/- 5 mm Hg (mean +/- SE) by 40.5 +/- 3.1 hr of age, at which time treatment with 50 mg natural sheep surfactant lipid/kg body weight by tracheal instillation resulted in improvements in pH, pO2, and pCO2 measurements. Radiolabeled palmitic acid was injected systemically after birth to detect the appearance of endogenously synthesized and secreted saturated phosphatidylcholine in sequential airway samples. Radiolabeled saturated phosphatidylcholine specific activity increased in a relatively linear fashion for about 30 hr in lambs treated with natural surfactant, in untreated premature lambs, and in term lambs. The study demonstrates that surfactant therapy can improve the ventilatory status of premature lambs despite many hours of ventilation for pulmonary immaturity. The overall kinetics of secretion of saturated phosphatidylcholine is similar in lambs with and without pulmonary immaturity.

IL-8 signaling does not mediate intra-amniotic LPS-induced inflammation and maturation in preterm fetal lamb lung

Preterm infants exposed to chorioamnionitis and preterm sheep fetuses exposed to intra-amniotic (IA) LPS have lung inflammation, increased IL-8 levels, and lung maturation. We tested the hypothesis that IL-8 signaling mediates IA LPS-induced lung inflammation and lung maturation. Two strategies were used: 1) we tested if IA injection of recombinant sheep IL-8 (rsIL-8) induced fetal inflammation and 2) if IL-8 signaling was blocked by a novel CXCR2 receptor blocker, nicotinanilide thioglycolate methyl ester (NTME). To test effects of IL-8 in the fetus, rsIL-8 was given intravascularly (50 microg) at 124 +/- 1 day of gestation (term = 150 days). A separate group of sheep was given IA rsIL-8 (100 microg) and delivered 5 h to 7 days later at 124 +/- 1 day of gestation. After confirming efficacy of the CXCR2 inhibitor, effects of IL-8 blockade were tested by injecting fetal sheep intramuscularly with NTME (10 mg) before IA injection of Escherichia coli LPS (10 mg). Sheep fetuses were delivered 1 or 7 days after injections at 124 +/- 1 day of gestation. IA rsIL-8 induced a modest fivefold increase in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) monocytes and neutrophils and increased lung monocyte hydrogen peroxide generation. However, rsIL-8 did not induce lung maturation. Intravascular rsIL-8 did not change fetal cardiovascular variables, blood pH, or blood leukocyte counts. Inhibition of CXCR2 decreased IA LPS-induced increases in BAL proteins at 1 day but not at 7 days. NTME did not significantly decrease IA LPS-induced BAL leukocyte influx and lung cytokine mRNA expression. Inhibition of CXCR2 did not change IA LPS-induced lung maturation. IL-8 signaling does not mediate LPS-induced lung inflammation and lung maturation.

C/EBP{alpha} is required for pulmonary cytoprotection during hyperoxia

A number of transcriptional pathways regulating fetal lung development are active during repair of the injured lung. We hypothesized that C/EBPalpha, a transcription factor critical for lung maturation, plays a role in protection of the alveolar epithelium following hyperoxic injury of the mature lung. Transgenic Cebpalpha(Delta/Delta) mice, in which Cebpalpha was conditionally deleted from Clara cells and type II cells after birth, were developed. While no pulmonary abnormalities were observed in the Cebpalpha(Delta/Delta) mice (7-8 wk old) under normal conditions, the mice were highly susceptible to hyperoxia. Cebpalpha(Delta/Delta) mice died within 4 days of exposure to 95% oxygen in association with severe lung inflammation, altered maturation of surfactant protein B and C, decreased surfactant lipid secretion, and abnormal lung mechanics at a time when all control mice survived. mRNA microarray analysis of isolated type II cells at 0, 2, and 24 h of hyperoxia demonstrated the reduced expression of number of genes regulating surfactant lipid and protein homeostasis, including Srebf, Scap, Lpcat1, Abca3, Sftpb, and Napsa. Genes influencing cell signaling or immune responses were induced in the lungs of Cebpalpha(Delta/Delta) mice. C/EBPalpha was required for the regulation of genes associated with surfactant lipid homeostasis, surfactant protein biosynthesis, processing and transport, defense response to stress, and cell redox homeostasis during exposure to hyperoxia. While C/EBPalpha did not play a critical role in postnatal pulmonary function under normal conditions, C/EBPalpha mediated protection of the lung during acute lung injury induced by hyperoxia.

Characterization of signals that dictate nuclear/nucleolar and cytoplasmic shuttling of the capsid protein of Tomato leaf curl Java virus associated with DNA beta satellite

Transport of the viral genome into the nucleus is an obligatory step in the replication cycle of geminiviruses. Capsid proteins (CPs) of geminiviruses are multifunctional proteins thought to be involved in this process. The CP of monopartite geminiviruses is absolutely essential for virus movement. To more precisely examine the role of CP, we have constructed a series of single and double deletions into the coding sequence of Tomato leaf curl Java virus (ToLCJAV) CP and examined sub-cellular localization using transient expression of GFP fusion proteins. In this report, the domains of the CP encoded by ToLCJAV localized in the nucleus/nucleolus and cytoplasm in transfected cells were mapped. Deletion analysis revealed that the Arg-rich cluster from amino acids (aa) (16)KVRRR(20) in the N-terminal region of CP functioned as nuclear/nucleolar localization signals (NLSs). The region from aa (52)RKPR(55) contained basic amino acid cluster was capable to redirect the CP to the nucleus. Further, both transient expression and yeast hybrid assays demonstrated that CP was capable of shuttling between the nucleus and cytoplasm of the cell. Deletion mutant analysis revealed that this property was attributed to a nuclear export signal (NES) sequence consisted of aa ((245)LKIRIY(250)) reside at C-terminal part of CP. This hydrophobic region caused transport of GFP to the cytoplasm. However, ToLCJAV CP NLSs and NES show peculiarities in the number and position of basic residues. Taken together, these results demonstrated that ToLCJAV CP shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm, such an activity homolog to bipartite geminivirus BV1 ORF.

Surfactant protein-D regulates the postnatal maturation of pulmonary surfactant lipid pool sizes

Surfactant protein (SP)-D plays an important role in host defense and pulmonary surfactant homeostasis. In SP-D-deficient (Sftpd(-/-)) mice, the abnormal large surfactant forms seen at the ultrastructural level are taken up inefficiently by type II cells, resulting in an over threefold increase in the surfactant pool size. The mechanisms by which SP-D influences surfactant ultrastructure are unknown. We hypothesized that SP-D binds to surfactant immediately after being secreted and influences surfactant ultrastructure conversion. In newborn and adult sheep lungs, immunogold-labeled SP-D was associated with both lamellated membranous lipid structures of newly secreted surfactant and with small aggregate surfactant but not with tubular myelin. Since SP-D preferentially binds to phosphatidylinositol (PI) in vitro, the postnatal changes in PI were assessed. PI content in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid increased after birth and peaked at 2-5 days of age, a time of rapid conversion of surfactant forms that is associated with the peak of surfactant lipid pool size. SP-D selectively interacted with PI-rich liposomes in vitro, causing their lysis. Similarly, the abnormal surfactant ultrastructure in Sftpd(-/-) mice was corrected by the addition of SP-D or melittin, and both peptides caused lysis of lipid vesicles. The normal conversion of surfactant ultrastructure requires SP-D that preferentially interacts with PI-rich, newly secreted surfactant, causing lysis of surfactant lipid membranes, converting the lipid forms into smaller surfactant lamellated structures that are critical for surfactant uptake by type II cells and normal surfactant homeostasis. SP-D regulates the dramatic decreases in the surfactant pool size that occurs in the newborn period.

Rapamycin prevents transforming growth factor-alpha-induced pulmonary fibrosis

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha is a ligand for the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). EGFR activation is associated with fibroproliferative processes in human lung disease and animal models of pulmonary fibrosis. Overexpression of TGF-alpha in transgenic mice causes progressive and severe pulmonary fibrosis; however, the intracellular signaling pathways downstream of EGFR mediating this response are unknown. Using a doxycycline-regulatable transgenic mouse model of lung-specific TGF-alpha expression, we observed increased PCNA protein and phosphorylation of Akt and p70S6K in whole lung homogenates in association with induction of TGF-alpha. Induction in the lung of TGF-alpha caused progressive pulmonary fibrosis over a 7-week period. Daily administration of rapamycin prevented accumulation of total lung collagen, weight loss, and changes in pulmonary mechanics. Treatment of mice with rapamycin 4 weeks after the induction of TGF-alpha prevented additional weight loss, increases in total collagen, and changes in pulmonary mechanics. Rapamycin prevented further increases in established pulmonary fibrosis induced by EGFR activation. This study demonstrates that mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a major effector of EGFR-induced pulmonary fibrosis, providing support for further studies to determine the role of mTOR in the pathogenesis and treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.