Ethanol up-regulates nucleus accumbens neuronal activity dependent pentraxin (Narp): implications for alcohol-induced behavioral plasticity

Neuronal activity dependent pentraxin (Narp) interacts with α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA) glutamate receptors to facilitate excitatory synapse formation by aggregating them at established synapses. Alcohol is well-characterized to influence central glutamatergic transmission, including AMPA receptor function. Herein, we examined the influence of injected and ingested alcohol upon Narp protein expression, as well as basal Narp expression in mouse lines selectively bred for high blood alcohol concentrations under limited access conditions. Alcohol up-regulated accumbens Narp levels, concomitant with increases in levels of the GluR1 AMPA receptor subunit. However, accumbens Narp or GluR1 levels did not vary as a function of selectively bred genotype. We next employed a Narp knock-out (KO) strategy to begin to understand the behavioral relevance of alcohol-induced changes in protein expression in several assays of alcohol reward. Compared to wild-type mice, Narp KO animals: fail to escalate daily intake of high alcohol concentrations under free-access conditions; shift their preference away from high alcohol concentrations with repeated alcohol experience; exhibit a conditioned place-aversion in response to the repeated pairing of 3 g/kg alcohol with a distinct environment and fail to exhibit alcohol-induced locomotor hyperactivity following repeated alcohol treatment. Narp deletion did not influence the daily intake of either food or water, nor did it alter any aspect of spontaneous or alcohol-induced motor activity, including the development of tolerance to its motor-impairing effects with repeated treatment. Taken together, these data indicate that Narp induction, and presumably subsequent aggregation of AMPA receptors, may be important for neuroplasticity within limbic subcircuits mediating or maintaining the rewarding properties of alcohol.

Homeostatic scaling requires group I mGluR activation mediated by Homer1a

Homeostatic scaling is a non-Hebbian form of neural plasticity that maintains neuronal excitability and informational content of synaptic arrays in the face of changes of network activity. Here, we demonstrate that homeostatic scaling is dependent on group I metabotropic glutamate receptor activation that is mediated by the immediate early gene Homer1a. Homer1a is transiently upregulated during increases in network activity and evokes agonist-independent signaling of group I mGluRs that scales down the expression of synaptic AMPA receptors. Homer1a effects are dynamic and play a role in the induction of scaling. Similar to mGluR-LTD, Homer1a-dependent scaling involves a reduction of tyrosine phosphorylation of GluA2 (GluR2), but is distinct in that it exploits a unique signaling property of group I mGluR to confer cell-wide, agonist-independent activation of the receptor. These studies reveal an elegant interplay of mechanisms that underlie Hebbian and non-Hebbian plasticity.

Localization and expression of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors in the mouse striatum, globus pallidus, and subthalamic nucleus: regulatory effects of MPTP treatment and constitutive Homer deletion

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), mGluR1 and mGluR5, regulate activity in the globus pallidus (GP) and subthalamic nucleus (STN). To test whether the localization of group I mGluRs is altered in parkinsonism, we used immunoelectron microscopy to analyze the subcellular and subsynaptic distribution of mGluR1a and mGluR5 in GP and STN of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated mice. Homer1 and Homer2 knock-out mice were used to assess the role of Homer in MPTP-induced redistribution of group I mGluRs. We also examined the effects of MPTP on the expression levels of group I mGluRs and Homer proteins in GP and striatum. MPTP treatment significantly reduced the expression levels of H1a and mGluR1a in striatum but not in GP. Although light microscopy did not reveal noticeable effects of MPTP treatment on the distribution of group I mGluRs and Homer proteins in GP and STN, specific changes in the ultrastructural localization of mGluR1a were found in MPTP-treated normal and Homer knock-out mice. An increase in the expression of presynaptic axonal and terminal mGluR1a labeling and an increased level of mGluR1a immunoreactivity in the postsynaptic specialization of putative GABAergic synapses were among the most significant effects induced by dopamine depletion. However, neither of these changes was found for mGluR5, which, in contrast, displayed complex regulatory alterations in its subsynaptic distribution in response to Homer deletion and MPTP lesion. Thus, nigrostriatal dopaminergic lesion and Homer deletion lead to changes in the trafficking of group I mGluRs in vivo that are specific to receptor subtypes and brain areas.

Complex, multimodal behavioral profile of the Homer1 knockout mouse

Proteins of the Homer1 immediate early gene family have been associated with synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity suggesting broad behavioral consequences of loss of function. This study examined the behavior of male Homer1 knockout (KO) mice compared with wild-type (WT) and heterozygous mice using a battery of 10 behavioral tests probing sensory, motor, social, emotional and learning/memory functions. KO mice showed mild somatic growth retardation, poor motor coordination, enhanced sensory reactivity and learning deficits. Heterozygous mice showed increased aggression in social interactions with conspecifics. The distribution of mGluR5 and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDA) receptors appeared to be unaltered in the hippocampus (HIP) of Homer1 KO mice. The results indicate an extensive range of disrupted behaviors that should contribute to the understanding of the Homer1 gene in brain development and behavior.

Homer 1 mediates store- and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-dependent translocation and retrieval of TRPC3 to the plasma membrane

Store-operated Ca(2+) channels (SOCs) mediate receptor-stimulated Ca(2+) influx. Accumulating evidence indicates that members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) channel family are components of SOCs in mammalian cells. Agonist stimulation activates SOCs and TRP channels directly and by inducing translocation of channels in intracellular vesicles to the plasma membrane (PM). The mechanism of TRP channel translocation in response to store depletion and agonist stimulation is not known. Here we use TRPC3 as a model to show that IP(3) and the scaffold Homer 1 (H1) regulate the rate of translocation and retrieval of TRPC3 from the PM. In resting cells, TRPC3 exists in TRPC3-H1b/c-IP(3)Rs complexes that are located in part at the PM and in part in intracellular vesicles. Binding of IP(3) to the IP(3)Rs dissociates the interaction between IP(3)Rs and H1 but not between H1 and TRPC3 to form IP(3)Rs-TRPC3-H1b/c. TIRFM and biotinylation assays show robust receptor- and store-dependent translocation of the TRPC3 to the PM and their retrieval upon termination of cell stimulation. The translocation requires depletion of stored Ca(2+) and is prevented by inhibition of the IP(3)Rs. In HEK293, dissociating the H1b/c-IP(3)R complex with H1a results in TRPC3 translocation to the PM, where it is spontaneously active. The TRPC3-H1b/c-IP(3)Rs complex is reconstituted by infusing H1c into these cells. Reconstitution is inhibited by IP(3). Deletion of H1 in mice markedly reduces the rates of translocation and retrieval of TRPC3. Conversely, infusion of H1c into H1(-/-) cells eliminates spontaneous channel activity and increases the rate of channel activation by agonist stimulation. The effects of H1c are inhibited by IP(3). These findings together with our earlier studies demonstrating gating of TRPC3 by IP(3)Rs were used to develop a model in which assembly of the TRPC3-H1b/c-IP(3)Rs complexes by H1b/c mediates both the translocation of TRPC3-containing vesicles to the PM and gating of TRPC3 by IP(3)Rs.

Homer2 is necessary for EtOH-induced neuroplasticity

Homer proteins are integral to the assembly of proteins regulating glutamate signaling and synaptic plasticity. Constitutive Homer2 gene deletion [knock-out (KO)] and rescue with adeno-associated viral (AAV) transfection of Homer2b was used to demonstrate the importance of Homer proteins in neuroplasticity produced by repeated ethanol (EtOH) administration. Homer2 KO mice avoided drinking high concentrations of EtOH and did not develop place preference or locomotor sensitization after repeated EtOH administration. The deficient behavioral plasticity to EtOH after Homer2 deletion was paralleled by a lack of augmentation in the rise in extracellular dopamine and glutamate elicited by repeated EtOH injections. The genotypic differences in EtOH-induced change in behavior and neurochemistry were essentially reversed by AAV-mediated transfection of Homer2b into accumbens cells including, differences in EtOH preference, locomotor sensitization, and EtOH-induced elevations in extracellular glutamate and dopamine. These data demonstrate a necessary and active role for accumbens Homer2 expression in regulating EtOH-induced behavioral and cellular neuroplasticity.

Behavioral and neurochemical phenotyping of Homer1 mutant mice: possible relevance to schizophrenia

Homer proteins are involved in the functional assembly of postsynaptic density proteins at glutamatergic synapses and are implicated in learning, memory and drug addiction. Here, we report that Homer1-knockout (Homer1-KO) mice exhibit behavioral and neurochemical abnormalities that are consistent with the animal models of schizophrenia. Relative to wild-type mice, Homer1-KO mice exhibited deficits in radial arm maze performance, impaired prepulse inhibition, enhanced 'behavioral despair', increased anxiety in a novel objects test, enhanced reactivity to novel environments, decreased instrumental responding for sucrose and enhanced MK-801- and methamphetamine-stimulated motor behavior. No-net-flux in vivo microdialysis revealed a decrease in extracellular glutamate content in the nucleus accumbens and an increase in the prefrontal cortex. Moreover, in Homer1-KO mice, cocaine did not stimulate a rise in frontal cortex extracellular glutamate levels, suggesting hypofrontality. These behavioral and neurochemical data derived from Homer1 mutant mice are consistent with the recent association of schizophrenia with a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the Homer1 gene and suggest that the regulation of extracellular levels of glutamate within limbo-corticostriatal structures by Homer1 gene products may be involved in the pathogenesis of this neuropsychiatric disorder.

Homer proteins regulate sensitivity to cocaine

Drug addiction involves complex interactions between pharmacology and learning in genetically susceptible individuals. Members of the Homer gene family are regulated by acute and chronic cocaine administration. Here, we report that deletion of Homer1 or Homer2 in mice caused the same increase in sensitivity to cocaine-induced locomotion, conditioned reward, and augmented extracellular glutamate in nucleus accumbens as that elicited by withdrawal from repeated cocaine administration. Moreover, adeno-associated virus-mediated restoration of Homer2 in the accumbens of Homer2 KO mice reversed the cocaine-sensitized phenotype. Further analysis of Homer2 KO mice revealed extensive additional behavioral and neurochemical similarities to cocaine-sensitized animals, including accelerated acquisition of cocaine self-administration and altered regulation of glutamate by metabotropic glutamate receptors and cystine/glutamate exchange. These data show that Homer deletion mimics the behavioral and neurochemical phenotype produced by repeated cocaine administration and implicate Homer in regulating addiction to cocaine.

Homer binds TRPC family channels and is required for gating of TRPC1 by IP3 receptors

Receptor signaling at the plasma membrane often releases calcium from intracellular stores. For example, inositol triphosphate (IP3) produced by receptor-coupled phospholipase C activates an intracellular store calcium channel, the IP(3)R. Conversely, stores can induce extracellular calcium to enter the cell through plasma membrane channels, too. How this "reverse" coupling works was unclear, but store IP(3)Rs were proposed to bind and regulate plasma membrane TRP cation channels. Here, we demonstrate that the adaptor protein, termed Homer, facilitates a physical association between TRPC1 and the IP(3)R that is required for the TRP channel to respond to signals. The TRPC1-Homer-IP(3)R complex is dynamic and its disassembly parallels TRPC1 channel activation. Homer's action depends on its ability to crosslink and is blocked by the dominant-negative immediate early gene form, H1a. Since H1a is transcriptionally regulated by cellular activity, this mechanism can affect both short and long-term regulation of TRPC1 function.

An intronic silencer regulates B lymphocyte cell- and stage-specific expression of the human complement receptor type 2 (CR2, CD21) gene

Human CR2 (CD21) is a B lymphocyte protein whose surface expression is restricted primarily to the mature cell stage during development. To study the transcriptional mechanisms that govern cell- and stage-restricted CR2 expression, we first performed transient transfection analysis using constructs extending from -5 kb to +75 bp (-5 kb/+75) in the CR2 promoter. The promoter was found to be broadly active, with no evidence of cell- or stage-specific reporter gene expression. However, the addition of a 2.5-kb intronic gene segment (containing a DNase I hypersensitive site) to the (-5-kb/+75) construct resulted in appropriate reporter gene expression, defined as the silencing of the (-5-kb/+75) promoter activity only in non-CR2-expressing cells. Interestingly, appropriate reporter gene expression required stable transfection of the constructs in cell lines, suggesting nuclear matrix or chromatin interactions may be important for appropriate CR2 gene expression. Importantly, transgenic mice also required the intronic silencer to generate lymphoid tissue-specific reporter gene expression. Some transgenic founder lines did not demonstrate reporter gene expression, however, indicating that additional transcriptional regulatory elements are present in other regions of the CR2 gene. In summary, these data support the hypothesis that human CR2 expression is regulated primarily by an intronic silencer with lineage- and B cell stage-specific activity.

An Intronic Silencer Regulates B Lymphocyte Cell- and Stage-Specific Expression of the Human Complement Receptor Type 2 (CR2, CD21) Gene

Human CR2 (CD21) is a B lymphocyte protein whose surface expression is restricted primarily to the mature cell stage during development. To study the transcriptional mechanisms that govern cell- and stage-restricted CR2 expression, we first performed transient transfection analysis using constructs extending from −5 kb to +75 bp (−5 kb/+75) in the CR2 promoter. The promoter was found to be broadly active, with no evidence of cell- or stage-specific reporter gene expression. However, the addition of a 2.5-kb intronic gene segment (containing a DNase I hypersensitive site) to the (−5-kb/+75) construct resulted in appropriate reporter gene expression, defined as the silencing of the (−5-kb/+75) promoter activity only in non-CR2-expressing cells. Interestingly, appropriate reporter gene expression required stable transfection of the constructs in cell lines, suggesting nuclear matrix or chromatin interactions may be important for appropriate CR2 gene expression. Importantly, transgenic mice also required the intronic silencer to generate lymphoid tissue-specific reporter gene expression. Some transgenic founder lines did not demonstrate reporter gene expression, however, indicating that additional transcriptional regulatory elements are present in other regions of the CR2 gene. In summary, these data support the hypothesis that human CR2 expression is regulated primarily by an intronic silencer with lineage- and B cell stage-specific activity.

Moesin, and not the murine functional homologue (Crry/p65) of human membrane cofactor protein (CD46), is involved in the entry of measles virus (strain Edmonston) into susceptible murine cell lines

Membrane cofactor protein (CD46) has been firmly established as the major high affinity receptor for measles virus (MV). In addition, another protein, moesin, has been shown to be linked with the susceptibility of human cells to MV infection. Murine cells are largely resistant to MV infection, although a number of cell types can be productively infected. As murine cells do not express CD46 an additional mechanism for the uptake of MV is likely. Murine cells possess a functional homologue of CD46 (Crry/p65) in addition to murine moesin, which has nucleotide and amino acid homology to human moesin. We report that anti-moesin monoclonal antibodies 119 and 38/87 reduce the number of infectious centres attributed to MV in murine cell lines NS20Y and L929, whereas polyclonal antisera specific for Crry/p65 and CD46 had no effect on MV infection of these cells. We suggest that moesin may be important in the non-CD46-mediated uptake of MV strain Edmonston by susceptible murine cell lines.

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) binding to cell monolayers is directly modulated by the addition of IGF-binding proteins

Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) binds to specific receptors and IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) that are present on cell surfaces. The analysis of [125I]IGF-I binding to human fibroblasts is complicated by IGFBPs on the cell surface and their release into the medium during the binding assay. This release alters the distribution of [125I]IGF-I between type I IGF receptors and both soluble as well as cell surface-associated IGFBPs. In the present study we have determined the effects of three different forms of IGFBPs on [125I]IGF-I binding to cell surface binding sites of human fetal fibroblasts (GM10 cells) and porcine smooth muscle cells. Human 29,000 mol wt (Mr; IGFBP-1), bovine 34,000 Mr (IGFBP-2), and bovine 46,000 Mr (IGFBP-3) forms of IGFBP were compared. Each of the three IGFBPs inhibited [125I]IGF-I binding to the cell surface of both cell types. This effect was due to increased binding of [125I]IGF-I by the IGFBPs in the assay buffer. At equimolar concentrations, IGFBP-3 was more effective than either IGFBP-1 or IGFBP-2 in blocking cell surface binding. The addition of increasing concentrations of unlabeled IGF-I in the presence of each IGFBP showed that either IGFBP-1 or IGFBP-3, but not IGFBP-2, resulted in a paradoxical increase in [125I]IGF-I binding to the cell surface. The paradoxical increase occurred in the presence of excess insulin, indicating that unsaturated type I IGF receptors are not required to demonstrate this phenomenon. In a physiological salt solution, the order of affinity of the IGFBPs for IGF-I was IGFBP-3 greater than IGFBP-1 greater than IGFBP-2. These differences in affinity appear to account for the differences in IGF-I competition for binding that are seen when each of the three proteins is added. Thus, IGFBPs have the potential to alter the partitioning of IGF-I between cell surface-associated IGFBPs, membrane receptors, and the IGFBPs in extracellular fluids. The various forms of IGFBP affect IGF cell surface binding differently, and therefore, each may have distinct effects on IGF target cell actions.

Characterization of the human complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21) promoter reveals sequences shared with regulatory regions of other developmentally restricted B cell proteins

Expression of human complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21, C3d,g/EBV receptor) is developmentally restricted on human B lymphocytes to cells of the late-pre and mature stages. CR2 is also a member of the genetically linked regulators of complement activation family found on human chromosome 1q32. Regulators of complement activation proteins are variably expressed in plasma, on cell membranes, and in nonvascular extracellular fluid sites. To begin to understand the mechanisms that control both tissue specific and B cell developmental restriction of CR2 expression, we have cloned and characterized the CR2 promoter upstream of a single apparent transcriptional initiation site. Within this region are sequences with significant similarity to previously characterized TATA, SP1, AP-2, AP-1-like, and Ig enhancer E motif DNA protein binding sites, in addition to direct and inverted repeats. Significant regions of identity are also found between CR2 promoter sequences and those of the CD23 promoter, another protein whose expression is developmentally restricted on B cells. The CR2 promoter will direct transcription of the reporter gene chloramphenicol acyltransferase when transiently transfected into the human Raji B cell line. Therefore, we have identified the promoter for a human B cell protein whose expression is developmentally restricted. Further analysis of this region and the transcriptional regulation of CR2 gene expression should lead to significant insights into the molecular mechanisms by which B cells mature and are activated.

Characterization of the human complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21) promoter reveals sequences shared with regulatory regions of other developmentally restricted B cell proteins

Expression of human complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21, C3d,g/EBV receptor) is developmentally restricted on human B lymphocytes to cells of the late-pre and mature stages. CR2 is also a member of the genetically linked regulators of complement activation family found on human chromosome 1q32. Regulators of complement activation proteins are variably expressed in plasma, on cell membranes, and in nonvascular extracellular fluid sites. To begin to understand the mechanisms that control both tissue specific and B cell developmental restriction of CR2 expression, we have cloned and characterized the CR2 promoter upstream of a single apparent transcriptional initiation site. Within this region are sequences with significant similarity to previously characterized TATA, SP1, AP-2, AP-1-like, and Ig enhancer E motif DNA protein binding sites, in addition to direct and inverted repeats. Significant regions of identity are also found between CR2 promoter sequences and those of the CD23 promoter, another protein whose expression is developmentally restricted on B cells. The CR2 promoter will direct transcription of the reporter gene chloramphenicol acyltransferase when transiently transfected into the human Raji B cell line. Therefore, we have identified the promoter for a human B cell protein whose expression is developmentally restricted. Further analysis of this region and the transcriptional regulation of CR2 gene expression should lead to significant insights into the molecular mechanisms by which B cells mature and are activated.

Both type I and II insulin-like growth factor receptor binding increase during lactogenesis in bovine mammary tissue

Bovine GH is a potent stimulant of lactation, and the insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and -II) are believed to mediate GH's growth-promoting actions. Since all of IGF's known actions are mediated through its receptor subtypes, we analyzed the distribution of IGF receptor subtypes in lactating and nonlactating bovine mammary tissue. Analysis of competition curves showed that IGF-I had greater potency than IGF-II in competing with [125I]IGF-I for binding to membranes prepared from both lactating and nonlactating animals. An insulin concentration of 4 micrograms/ml displaced less than 40% of the [125I]IGF-I bound to membranes prepared from both lactating and nonlactating animals, indicating that a high percentage of [125I]IGF-I was bound to the type II receptor. Lactation was associated with an increase in the total amount of [125I]IGF-I bound, and this change was due to an increase in binding to both receptor subtypes. Specifically, membranes prepared from lactating animals had a 3-fold increase in binding competed for by insulin and a 2-fold increase in binding not competed for by insulin. Affinity cross-linking of [125I]IGF-I to membranes prepared from both lactating and nonlactating animals, followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and autoradiography, showed that 260K and 135K bands were present. Competition experiments indicated that unlabeled IGF-I effectively competed for binding to the 260K band, whereas insulin did not. Binding to the 135K band could be inhibited by both IGF-I and insulin. The intensity of the labeled bands showed that type II receptors were relatively more abundant than type I receptors in membranes from both lactating and nonlactating animals. Membranes prepared from lactating animals showed both 135K and 127K species of the type I receptor, whereas nonlactating animals showed only the 135K band. We conclude that type I and II receptors are present in bovine mammary tissue, and type II predominate. Lactation is associated with increases in the concentration of both receptor subtypes, especially type I receptors. Lactation may be associated with structural changes in the type I receptor. These changes in receptor distribution could play a role in modulating the physiological effects of the IGFs on mammary tissue.

Adipose tissue fatty acid metabolism during pregnancy in swine

In vitro adipose tissue fatty acid pool size (POOL), fatty acid release (FAR) and esterification (EST) were measured in peritoneal (PFP) and subcutaneous mammary (MFP) fat pads of swine at d 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 112 of pregnancy. Plasma free fatty acids (FFA) and triglycerides (TG) were not altered by stage of pregnancy. Basal EST in PFP was generally constant across pregnancy with a peak at d 75. Basal EST in MFP was elevated at d 30, 75 and 112. Esterification in response to norepinephrine stimulus (NE) was lower than basal rates in both fat depots. Basal FAR was constant throughout pregnancy in PFP, but elevated at d 75 and 90 in MFP. Fatty acid release in response to NE was biphasic with peaks at d 30 and in late pregnancy (in MFP, micromolar FAR in response to NE was 69.3% greater on d 75 to 112 than on d 45 to 60). Basal POOL was constant throughout pregnancy in both depots and lower than NE-stimulated POOL. All responses to NE were greater in MFP than in PFP, indicating that adipose tissue surrounding the developing mammary gland had higher metabolic activity and a greater response to NE than peritoneal adipose. Changes in fatty acid metabolism during pregnancy in swine are temporally related to published values for plasma steroids, fetal growth and mammary development. Metabolic adaptations in adipose and mannary epithelial tissue occur in synchrony with changing plasma estrogen concentrations, redirecting energy flow from maternal adipose tissue toward developing mammary and fetal tissue.

A review of endocrine regulation of metabolism during lactation

Lactogenesis signals the shift from uterine nutrient transfer to the fetus to neonatal nourishment at the mammary gland. Metabolic adaptations involved in this process are under endocrine regulation. Key events include an increase in blood flow to mammary tissue, a decrease in nutrient utilization by peripheral tissues and an increase in nutrient utilization by mammary tissue for milk synthesis. Deficits of certain substrates during early lactation require mobilization of those substrates from depot stores. Changes in metabolism of various tissues are related to changes in hormone receptor populations of those tissues and hormone concentrations in blood. Hormone receptors are therefore the primary mechanism by which information from the endocrine systems is linked to cellular metabolism. Endocrine changes at parturition result in dramatic changes in receptor populations of key tissues such as adipose and mammary tissues. Knowledge in this area, however, is incomplete. Relationship between hormone receptors and specific cellular metabolic pathways remains unresolved.