The benefits of difference-education interventions in lower-resourced institutions

Difference-education is an intervention that addresses psychological barriers that can undermine the academic performance of first-generation college students (i.e., those who have parents without 4-year degrees). Difference-education interventions improve first-generation students' performance by empowering them to navigate higher education environments more effectively. They also improve students' comfort with social group difference. However, these benefits have only been documented in higher-resourced institutions. The present research asks two questions about whether these benefits also extend to lower-resourced institutions-that is, schools with fewer resources to invest in students than the universities where prior difference-education interventions were delivered. First, is difference-education effective in improving first-generation students' academic performance in lower-resourced institutions, and does it do so by increasing empowerment? Second, does difference-education improve comfort with social group difference in lower-resourced institutions, and is it unique in its ability to do so? With students from four lower-resourced institutions, we examined these questions by comparing the results of a difference-education intervention to a control condition and social-belonging intervention. We found that while some benefits of difference-education interventions extend to lower-resourced institutions, others do not. First, like prior interventions, difference-education improves first-generation students' academic performance and comfort with social group difference. Unlike prior interventions, these effects did not persist beyond the first term and students' academic performance benefits were not explained by empowerment. We also found partial evidence that the benefits for comfort with social group difference were unique compared to a social-belonging intervention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Motivated Knowledge Acquisition: Implicit Self-Theories and the Preference for Knowledge Breadth or Depth

Implicit self-theories posit that individuals ascribe to one of two beliefs regarding the self: an incremental theory motivated by learning goals and an entity theory motivated by performance goals. This work proposes that these theories-and their underlying motivations-reflect individuals' preferences for different knowledge types. Specifically, we propose that incremental theorists prefer knowledge that expands their understanding of diverse experiences within a category (i.e., knowledge breadth), whereas entity theorists prefer knowledge that refines their understanding of a preferred experience within a category (i.e., knowledge depth). Five studies show the effect of implicit self-theories on individuals' preferences for knowledge breadth and depth and the role of learning and performance goals in motivating these knowledge preferences. We address alternative explanations related to general openness, risk-seeking, and perceived quality differences, and we demonstrate the role of negative feedback in reversing these knowledge preferences.

Effects of matching personal and organizational mindsets on belonging and organizational interest

Growth mindsets are beliefs that abilities, like intelligence, are mutable. Although most prior work has focused on people's personal mindset beliefs, a burgeoning literature has identified that organizations also vary in the extent to which they communicate and endorse growth mindsets. Organizational growth mindsets have powerful effects on belonging and interest in joining organizations, suggesting that they may be a productive way to intervene to improve individual and societal outcomes. Yet, little is known about for whom organizational mindset interventions might be more or less effective, a critical question for effective implementation and theory. We examine whether people's personal mindset beliefs might determine the effect of organizational growth mindsets, and if so, whether this moderation reflects a matching or mismatching pattern. Three experiments manipulated the espoused mindset of an organization and found that organizational growth mindsets primarily increased belonging and interest in joining among participants who personally endorsed matching growth mindset beliefs. An additional field study provided ecological validity to these findings, replicating them with students' experiences of belonging in classrooms. This study also revealed a divergent mismatching pattern on grades: rather than bolstering the grades of students with growth mindsets, growth mindset classroom contexts primarily enhanced the grades of students with more fixed mindsets. By clarifying for whom organizational growth mindsets are beneficial and in what manner, the current work provides theoretical and practical insight into the psychological dynamics of organizational growth mindsets. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Shifting the mindset culture to address global educational disparities

Educational outcomes remain highly unequal within and across nations. Students' mindsets-their beliefs about whether intellectual abilities can be developed-have been identified as a potential lever for making adolescents' academic outcomes more equitable. Recent research, however, suggests that intervention programs aimed at changing students' mindsets should be supplemented by programs aimed at the changing the mindset culture, which is defined as the shared set of beliefs about learning in a school or classroom. This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical origin of the mindset culture and examines its potential to reduce group-based inequalities in education. In particular, experiments have identified two broad ways the mindset culture is communicated by teachers: via informal messages about growth (e.g., that all students will be helped to learn and succeed), and formal opportunities to improve (e.g., learning-focused grading policies and opportunities to revise and earn credit). New field experiments, applying techniques from behavioral science, have also revealed effective ways to influence teachers' culture-creating behaviors. This paper describes recent breakthroughs in the U.S. educational context and discusses how lessons from these studies might be applied in future, global collaborations with researchers and practitioners.

Where and with whom does a brief social-belonging intervention promote progress in college?

A promising way to mitigate inequality is by addressing students' worries about belonging. But where and with whom is this social-belonging intervention effective? Here we report a team-science randomized controlled experiment with 26,911 students at 22 diverse institutions. Results showed that the social-belonging intervention, administered online before college (in under 30 minutes), increased the rate at which students completed the first year as full-time students, especially among students in groups that had historically progressed at lower rates. The college context also mattered: The intervention was effective only when students' groups were afforded opportunities to belong. This study develops methods for understanding how student identities and contexts interact with interventions. It also shows that a low-cost, scalable intervention generalizes its effects to 749 4-year institutions in the United States.

Gender representation and academic achievement among STEM-interested students in college STEM courses

Substantial gender equity gaps in postsecondary degree completion persist within many science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, and these disparities have not narrowed during the 21st century. Various explanations of this phenomenon have been offered; one possibility that has received limited attention is that the sparse representation of women itself has adverse effects on the academic achievement-and ultimately the persistence and graduation-of women who take STEM courses. This study explored the relationship between two forms of gender representation (i.e., the proportion of female students within a course and the presence of a female instructor) and grades within a sample of 11,958 STEM-interested undergraduates enrolled in 8686 different STEM courses at 20 colleges and universities. Female student representation within a course predicted greater academic achievement in STEM for all students, and these findings were generally stronger among female students than male students. Female students also consistently benefitted more than male students from having a female STEM instructor. These findings were largely similar across a range of student and course characteristics and were robust to different analytic approaches; a notable exception was that female student representation had particularly favorable outcomes for female students (relative to male students) within mathematics/statistics and computer science courses.

Diversity or representation? Sufficient factors for Black Americans' identity safety during interracial interactions

OBJECTIVE

Interracial interactions are often fraught with concerns about experiencing discrimination or being negatively stereotyped (i.e., social identity threat). Past research revealed that Black participants interacting with a White partner view the presence of racial diversity in a White partner's friendship network as a signal of identity safety. We extend this work by clarifying the role of ingroup representation in friendship diversity. Namely, we assess social identity safety of Black participants when anticipating an interaction with a White partner whose friendship networks include diversity with or without ingroup representation.

METHOD

In an experimental study (N = 301), Black adults (52.8% female, 47.2% male; M_age = 29.96) expected to interact with a White partner who had all White friends (No Diversity); Black and White friends (Diversity with Ingroup Representation); or Asian, Latinx, and White friends (Diversity without Ingroup Representation). We assessed participants' perceptions of their White partner as prejudiced, how they expected their partner would think of them (Black metastereotypes), and their anticipated interaction challenges, rejection concerns, and friendship interest immediately prior to the anticipated interaction.

RESULTS

Black participants had fewer anticipated challenges, fewer rejection concerns, and more friendship interest when their White partner's friendship networks included (vs. excluded) ingroup representation. These effects were mediated by perceived partner prejudice and Black metastereotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that while any diversity of an outgroup member's friendship network is better than no diversity, ingroup representation is especially important in reducing threat and increasing social identity safety in interracial interactions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Ultra-low-dose cone-beam CT compared to standard dose in the assessment for acute fractures

PURPOSE

Multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT) is superior in fracture detection than conventional radiography; however, dose is increased. Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) offers higher spatial resolution and lower dose than MDCT. Manufacturers offer an ultra-low-dose algorithm. This study compares the diagnostic accuracy of the ultra-low-dose CBCT (ULDCBCT) with that of the standard-dose CBCT (SDCBCT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 64 patients were scanned with both the SDCBCT and the ULDCBCT protocols. Both studies were reported by two consultant radiologists with fellowship training in emergency radiology separated in time. The reporter recorded a diagnosis of fracture or normal and diagnostic confidence using a 5-point Likert scale. The gold standard was taken as the SDCBCT. Reporters were blinded to the indication and the SDCBCT report. Cases of discrepancy were resolved by consensus.

RESULTS

There were 34 fractures and 30 cases had no fracture. Several fractures were missed using the UDCBCT, and there were also several cases of overdiagnosis. ULD was inferior to SD for fracture diagnosis (p < 0.00001). The diagnostic accuracy of ULDCBCT was 82.8% (75.1-88.9 CI). The diagnostic accuracy of plain radiograph was 64% (55.1-75.7% CI). Diagnostic confidence was reduced; the mean confidence for SDCBCT was 4.68 vs 4.12 for ULDCBCT (p < 0.001). The Kappa for interobserver agreement was 0.6.

CONCLUSION

ULDCBCT is inferior to SDCBCT in fracture detection and confidence is reduced. For diagnostic studies, the standard dose should be used.

Changes in Ventricular and Cortical Volumes following Shunt Placement in Patients with Idiopathic Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

While changes in ventricular and extraventricular CSF spaces have been studied following shunt placement in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus, regional changes in cortical volumes have not. These changes are important to better inform disease pathophysiology and evaluation for copathology. The purpose of this work is to investigate changes in ventricular and cortical volumes in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus following ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus who underwent 3D T1-weighted MR imaging before and after ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement. Images were analyzed using tensor-based morphometry with symmetric normalization to determine the percentage change in ventricular and regional cortical volumes. Ventricular volume changes were assessed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test, and cortical volume changes, using a linear mixed-effects model (P < .05).

RESULTS

The study included 22 patients (5 women/17 men; mean age, 73 [SD, 6] years). Ventricular volume decreased after shunt placement with a mean change of -15.4% (P < .001). Measured cortical volume across all participants and cortical ROIs showed a mean percentage increase of 1.4% (P < .001). ROIs near the vertex showed the greatest percentage increase in volume after shunt placement, with smaller decreases in volume in the medial temporal lobes.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, cortical volumes mildly increased after shunt placement in patients with idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus with the greatest increases in regions near the vertex, indicating postshunt decompression of the cortex and sulci. Ventricular volumes showed an expected decrease after shunt placement.

Professors Who Signal a Fixed Mindset About Ability Undermine Women’s Performance in STEM

Two studies investigate how science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professors’ fixed mindsets—the belief that intelligence is fixed and unchangeable—may induce stereotype threat and undermine women’s performance. In an experiment ( N = 217), we manipulated professors’ mindset beliefs (fixed vs. growth) within a course syllabus. While both men and women perceived the fixed mindset professor to endorse more gender stereotypes and anticipated feeling less belonging in the course, women reported these effects more than men. However, only for women did this threat undermine performance. In a 2-year longitudinal field study (884 students enrolled in 46 STEM courses), students who perceived their professor to endorse a fixed (vs. growth) mindset thought the professor would endorse more gender stereotypes and experienced less belonging in those courses. However, only women’s grades in those courses suffered as a result. Together, these studies demonstrate that professors’ fixed mindset beliefs may trigger stereotype threat among women in STEM courses.

Beliefs, affordances, and adolescent development: Lessons from a decade of growth mindset interventions

Beliefs play a central role in human development. For instance, a growth mindset-a belief about the malleability of intelligence-can shape how adolescents interpret and respond to academic difficulties and how they subsequently navigate the educational system. But do usually-adaptive beliefs have the same effects for adolescents regardless of the contexts they are in? Answering this question can reveal new insights into classic developmental questions about continuity and change. Here we present the Mindset×Context framework and we apply this model to the instructive case of growth mindset interventions. We show that teaching students a growth mindset is most effective in educational contexts that provide affordances for a growth mindset; that is, contexts that permit and encourage students to view ability as developable and to act on that belief. This evidence contradicts the "beliefs alone" hypothesis, which holds that teaching adolescents a growth mindset is enough and that students can profit from these beliefs in almost any context, even unsupportive ones. The Mindset×Context framework leads to the realization that in order to produce more widespread and lasting change, we must complement the belief-changing interventions that have been aimed at students with new interventions that guide teachers toward classroom policies and practices that allow students' growth mindset beliefs to take root and yield benefits.

Learning goals mitigate identity threat for Black individuals in threatening interracial interactions

OBJECTIVE

Interactions between members of different racial and ethnic groups are often stressful. These interactions are stressful, in part, because they contribute to social identity threat-the fear of being judged or treated negatively based on one's social group membership. Previous work separately suggests that the diversity of an interaction partner's friendship network and the goals that people set for themselves influence social identity threat. Bringing these two bodies of work together, the present research examines whether adopting a learning (vs. performance) goal mitigates identity threat for Black people anticipating an interaction with a White partner who had a racially homogenous (vs. diverse) friendship network (a context previously shown to arouse identity threat).

METHOD

Two experimental studies (N = 310) were conducted. Black adults (M_age = 29.66, 64% women) primed with either a performance or learning goal anticipated an interaction with a White partner who had either a racially diverse (Study 1) or racially homogenous (Studies 1 and 2) friendship network. After, we assessed participants' social identity threat and anticipated interaction experiences.

RESULTS

Black adults primed with learning (vs. performance) goals expected to be perceived more positively by their interaction partner and expected to have more positive interaction experiences when they anticipated an interaction with a White partner who had a racially homogenous network of friends.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that learning goals can mitigate threat among Black individuals within an otherwise identity-threatening interaction context, thus opening the door for positive interracial contact in the future even in the context of challenging interracial interactions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Does my professor think my ability can change? Students' perceptions of their STEM professors' mindset beliefs predict their psychological vulnerability, engagement, and performance in class

Two experiments and 2 field studies examine how college students' perceptions of their science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) professors' mindset beliefs about the fixedness or malleability of intelligence predict students' anticipated and actual psychological experiences and performance in their STEM classes, as well as their engagement and interest in STEM more broadly. In Studies 1 (N = 252) and 2 (N = 224), faculty mindset beliefs were experimentally manipulated and students were exposed to STEM professors who endorsed either fixed or growth mindset beliefs. In Studies 3 (N = 291) and 4 (N = 902), we examined students' perceptions of their actual STEM professors' mindset beliefs and used experience sampling methodology (ESM) to capture their in-the-moment psychological experiences in those professors' classes. Across all studies, we find that students who perceive that their professor endorses more fixed mindset beliefs anticipate (Studies 1 and 2) and actually experience (Studies 3 and 4) more psychological vulnerability in those professors' classes-specifically, they report less belonging in class, greater evaluative concerns, greater imposter feelings, and greater negative affect. We also find that in-the-moment experiences of psychological vulnerability have downstream consequences. Students who perceive that their STEM professors endorse more fixed mindset beliefs experience greater psychological vulnerability in those professors' classes, which in turn predict greater dropout intentions, lower class attendance, less class engagement, less end-of-semester interest in STEM, and lower grades. These findings contribute to our understanding of how students' perceptions of professors' mindsets can serve as a situational cue that affects students' motivation, engagement, and performance in STEM. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Counterfeit diversity: How strategically misrepresenting gender diversity dampens organizations' perceived sincerity and elevates women's identity threat concerns

Women remain underrepresented in technology and computing fields. Aware of this problem, many tech organizations seek diversification strategies. Several academic sources recommend including gender diverse images in recruitment materials as a low-cost way to potentially attract female workers. However, for gender nondiverse organizations, this strategy means misrepresenting the current on-the-ground diversity of their organization. Four experiments investigate how women and men perceive organizations that counterfeit diversity (i.e., exaggerate gender diversity in recruitment advertisements) relative to organizations that (a) authentically portray a high degree of gender diversity (authentic diversity; Experiments 1-3); (b) authentically portray a low degree of gender diversity (authentic nondiversity; Experiments 2 and 3); and (c) acknowledge a lack of diversity in the present, but aspire to increase diversity in the future (aspirational diversity; Experiment 3). Results reveal that women and men perceive counterfeit diversity as insincere. This perceived insincerity, in turn, decreases women's and men's interest in the organization and engenders identity threat concerns among women (Experiments 1-4). Taken together, these findings complicate scholarly discussions of diversity and inclusion strategies by highlighting the role of perceived sincerity. When recruitment strategies are deemed insincere, these strategies can backfire-decreasing interest in the organization, fomenting threat, and perpetuating underrepresentation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A social-belonging intervention improves STEM outcomes for students who speak English as a second language

Students who speak English as a second language (ESL) are underserved and underrepresented in postsecondary science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields. To date, most existing research with ESL students in higher education is qualitative. Drawing from this important body of work, we investigate the impact of a social-belonging intervention on anticipated changes in belonging, STEM GPA, and proportion of STEM credits obtained in students' first semester and first year of college. Using data from more than 12,000 STEM-interested students at 19 universities, results revealed that the intervention increased ESL students' anticipated sense of belonging and three of the four academic outcomes. Moreover, anticipated changes in belonging mediated the intervention's effects on these academic outcomes. Robustness checks revealed that ESL effects persisted even when controlling for other identities correlated with ESL status. Overall, results suggest that anticipated belonging is an understudied barrier to creating a multilingual and diverse STEM workforce.

A customized belonging intervention improves retention of socially disadvantaged students at a broad-access university

Broad-access institutions play a democratizing role in American society, opening doors to many who might not otherwise pursue college. Yet these institutions struggle with persistence and completion. Do feelings of nonbelonging play a role, particularly for students from groups historically disadvantaged in higher education? Is belonging relevant to students' persistence-even when they form the numerical majority, as at many broad-access institutions? We evaluated a randomized intervention aimed at bolstering first-year students' sense of belonging at a broad-access university (N = 1,063). The intervention increased the likelihood that racial-ethnic minority and first-generation students maintained continuous enrollment over the next two academic years relative to multiple control groups. This two-year gain in persistence was mediated by greater feelings of social and academic fit one-year post-intervention. Results suggest that efforts to address belonging concerns at broad-access, majority-minority institutions can improve core academic outcomes for historically disadvantaged students at institutions designed to increase college accessibility.

Gallstones top to toe: what the radiologist needs to know

Gallstone-related disease can have significant associated morbidity and mortality worldwide. The incidence of gallstone-related disease in the Western world is on the increase. There are multiple different pathological manifestations of gallstone disease: the presentation, diagnosis and associated complications of which vary significantly depending on anatomical location. The role of imaging in gallstone-related disease is broad with radiology playing an essential role in the diagnosis, management and follow-up of gallstone-related pathologies. This paper distills the broad range of gallstone-related pathologies into an anatomical map, discussing the disease processes involved at each point along the biliary tree and reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of different imaging modalities for each distinct disease process.

Feeling Like an Imposter: The Effect of Perceived Classroom Competition on the Daily Psychological Experiences of First-Generation College Students

Many college students intend to pursue science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers but quickly abandon these goals when confronted with notoriously competitive STEM courses that often pit students against each other. This emphasis on interpersonal competition could be especially detrimental for first-generation (FG) college students, an underrepresented group in STEM fields which more strongly values communality and collaboration relative to their continuing-generation peers. Thus, FG students may experience more imposter feelings in STEM courses perceived as having a competitive culture. A longitudinal study (with 818 students and 2,638 experience-sampling observations) found that perceived classroom competition was associated with greater daily in-class imposter feelings among all students—but especially among FG students. Imposter feelings in turn predicted students’ end-of-term course engagement, attendance, dropout intentions, and course grades. Classroom competition and the imposter feelings it engenders may be an overlooked barrier for promoting the engagement, performance, and retention of FG students in STEM.

Cultures of Genius at Work: Organizational Mindsets Predict Cultural Norms, Trust, and Commitment

Three studies examine how organizational mindset —whether a company is perceived to view talent as fixed or malleable—functions as a core belief that predicts organizational culture and employees’ trust and commitment. In Study 1, Fortune 500 company mission statements were coded for mindset language and paired with Glassdoor culture data. Workers perceived a more negative culture at fixed (vs. growth) mindset companies. Study 2 experimentally manipulated organizational mindset and found that people evaluated fixed (vs. growth) mindset companies as having more negative culture norms and forecasted that employees would experience less trust and commitment. Study 3 confirmed these findings from more than 500 employees of seven Fortune 1000 companies. Employees who perceived their organization to endorse a fixed (vs. growth) mindset reported that their company’s culture was characterized by less collaboration, innovation, and integrity, and they reported less organizational trust and commitment. These findings suggest that organizational mindset shapes organizational culture.

Pharmacologic Management of Malignant Bowel Obstruction: When Surgery Is Not an Option

Malignant bowel obstruction (MBO) complicates 3%-15% of cancers and often necessitates inpatient admission. Hospitalists are increasingly involved in treating patients with MBO and coordinating their care across multiple subspecialties. Direct resolution of the obstruction via surgical or interventional means is always preferable. When such options are not possible, pharmacological treatments are the mainstay of therapy. Medications such as somatostatin analogs, steroids, H2-blockers, and other modalities can be effective in palliation and possible resolution of obstruction. Awareness of these pharmacologic therapies can aid hospitalists in treating patients who are confronted with this devastating condition.

The immigrant labeling effect: The role of immigrant group labels in prejudice against noncitizens

Five experiments ( N = 2,251) and a meta-analysis examine how group labels shape Americans’ levels of prejudice, behavioral intentions, and policy preferences toward immigrants living in the US without authorization. These studies extend research documenting how the perceived negativity of group labels (e.g., those describing gay people) affects people’s downstream attitudes. To this end, Study 1 examines the perceived negativity of the five most commonly used labels to describe unauthorized immigrants. Study 2 found that relatively negative (vs. neutral) labels (e.g., illegal aliens vs. noncitizens) engendered more prejudice, punitive behavioral intentions, and greater support for punitive policies. Study 3 replicates these effects and examines the role of familiarity. People who personally knew members of the group were more positive towards them overall, but were nevertheless susceptible to the labels’ influence. Studies 4 and 5 provide additional replications and explore prejudice as a mediator of behavioral intentions and policy preferences.

STEM faculty who believe ability is fixed have larger racial achievement gaps and inspire less student motivation in their classes

An important goal of the scientific community is broadening the achievement and participation of racial minorities in STEM fields. Yet, professors' beliefs about the fixedness of ability may be an unwitting and overlooked barrier for stigmatized students. Results from a longitudinal university-wide sample (150 STEM professors and more than 15,000 students) revealed that the racial achievement gaps in courses taught by more fixed mindset faculty were twice as large as the achievement gaps in courses taught by more growth mindset faculty. Course evaluations revealed that students were demotivated and had more negative experiences in classes taught by fixed (versus growth) mindset faculty. Faculty mindset beliefs predicted student achievement and motivation above and beyond any other faculty characteristic, including their gender, race/ethnicity, age, teaching experience, or tenure status. These findings suggest that faculty mindset beliefs have important implications for the classroom experiences and achievement of underrepresented minority students in STEM.

Can I Work with and Help Others in This Field? How Communal Goals Influence Interest and Participation in STEM Fields

Although science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines as a whole have made advances in gender parity and greater inclusion for women, these increases have been smaller or nonexistent in computing and engineering compared to other fields. In this focused review, we discuss how stereotypic perceptions of computing and engineering influence who enters, stays, and excels in these fields. We focus on communal goal incongruity-the idea that some STEM disciplines like engineering and computing are perceived as less aligned with people's communal goals of collaboration and helping others. In Part 1, we review the empirical literature that demonstrates how perceptions that these disciplines are incongruent with communal goals can especially deter women and girls, who highly endorse communal goals. In Part 2, we extend this perspective by reviewing accumulating evidence that perceived communal goal incongruity can deter any individual who values communal goals. Communal opportunities within computing and engineering have the potential to benefit first generation college students, underrepresented minority students, and communally-oriented men (as well as communally-oriented women). We describe the implications of this body of literature: describing how opting out of STEM in order to pursue fields perceived to encourage the pursuit of communal goals leave the stereotypic (mis)perceptions of computing and engineering unchanged and exacerbate female underrepresentation. In Part 3, we close with recommendations for how communal opportunities in computing and engineering can be highlighted to increase interest and motivation. By better integrating and publically acknowledging communal opportunities, the stereotypic perceptions of these fields could gradually change, making computing and engineering more inclusive and welcoming to all.

Signaling Threat

This study examined the cues hypothesis, which holds that situational cues, such as a setting's features and organization, can make potential targets vulnerable to social identity threat. Objective and subjective measures of identity threat were collected from male and female math, science, and engineering (MSE) majors who watched an MSE conference video depicting either an unbalanced ratio of men to women or a balanced ratio. Women who viewed the unbalanced video exhibited more cognitive and physiological vigilance, and reported a lower sense of belonging and less desire to participate in the conference, than did women who viewed the gender-balanced video. Men were unaffected by this situational cue. The implications for understanding vulnerability to social identity threat, particularly among women in MSE settings, are discussed.

The joint effect of bias awareness and self-reported prejudice on intergroup anxiety and intentions for intergroup contact

Two correlational studies investigated the joint effect of bias awareness-a new individual difference measure that assesses Whites' awareness and concern about their propensity to be biased-and prejudice on Whites' intergroup anxiety and intended intergroup contact. Using a community sample (Study 1), we found the predicted Bias Awareness × Prejudice interaction. Prejudice was more strongly related to interracial anxiety among those high (vs. low) in bias awareness. Study 2 investigated potential behavioral consequences in an important real world context: medical students' intentions for working primarily with minority patients. Study 2 replicated the Bias Awareness × Prejudice interaction and further demonstrated that interracial anxiety mediated medical students' intentions to work with minority populations.

A Company I Can Trust? Organizational Lay Theories Moderate Stereotype Threat for Women

Women remain under-represented in the leadership of corporate America. According to stereotype threat theory, this under-representation may persist because women are concerned about being stereotyped in business settings. Three studies investigated whether an entity (fixed), compared with an incremental (malleable), organizational lay theory is threatening for women evaluating a consulting company. Men and women viewed a company mission statement or website containing an entity or incremental theory. Results revealed that women—more so than men—trusted the entity company less than the incremental company. Furthermore, only women’s mistrust of the entity company was driven by their expectations about being stereotyped by its management. Notably, when combined with high or low representations of female employees, only organizational lay theories predicted trust. Finally, people’s—particularly women’s—mistrust of the entity company led them to disengage more before interacting with a representative. Implications for women’s experiences and outcomes in workplace settings are discussed.

Identity threat at work: how social identity threat and situational cues contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in the workplace

Significant disparities remain between racial and ethnic minorities' and Whites' experiences of American workplaces. Traditional prejudice and discrimination approaches explain these gaps in hiring, promotion, satisfaction, and well-being by pointing to the prejudice of people within organizations such as peers, managers, and executives. Grounded in social identity threat theory, this theoretical review instead argues that particular situational cues-often communicated by well-meaning, largely unprejudiced employees and managers-signal to stigmatized groups whether their identity is threatened and devalued or respected and affirmed. First, we provide an overview of how identity threat shapes the psychological processes of racial and ethnic minorities by heightening vigilance to certain situational cues in the workplace. Next, we outline several of these cues and their role in creating and sustaining perceptions of identity threat (or safety). Finally, we provide empirically grounded suggestions that organizations may use to increase identity safety among their employees of color. Taken together, the research demonstrates how situational cues contribute to disparate psychological experiences for racial and ethnic minorities at work, and suggests that by altering threatening cues, organizations may create more equitable, respectful, and inclusive environments where all people may thrive.

When Having Black Friends Isn’t Enough

People’s concerns about being rejected temper their interest in forming interracial friendships. For Blacks, identity threat can magnify their rejection concerns and reduce friendship interest. The present research explores the role that threat and safety cues play in Blacks’ concerns about being rejected by Whites. Prior to an interaction, participants learned information about their partner that was comprised of two safety cues or a safety cue accompanied by a threat cue. In Study 1, Blacks who received both a safety and a threat cue were more concerned about being rejected and were less interested in forming an interracial friendship than Blacks who received only safety cues. Whites were unaffected by these cues. In Study 2, Blacks’ perceptions of their interaction partner’s warmth mediated the cues’ effects on rejection concerns and friendship interest. This research suggests that a single threatening cue can undermine safety cues during interracial interactions.

Cognitive costs of contemporary prejudice

Two studies examined the cognitive costs of blatant and subtle racial bias during interracial interactions. In Study 1, Black participants engaged in a 10-minute, face-to-face interaction with a White confederate who expressed attitudes and behaviors consistent with blatant, subtle, or no racial bias. Consistent with contemporary theories of modern racism, interacting with a subtly biased, compared with a blatantly biased, White partner impaired the cognitive functioning of Blacks. Study 2 revealed that Latino participants suffered similar cognitive impairments when exposed to a White partner who displayed subtle, compared with blatant, racial bias. The theoretical and practical implications for understanding the dynamics of interracial interactions in the context of contemporary bias are discussed.

Prejudice Concerns and Race-Based Attentional Bias

The present study used eyetracking methodology to assess whether individuals high in external motivation (EM) to appear nonprejudiced exhibit an early bias in visual attention toward Black faces indicative of social threat perception. Drawing on previous work examining visual attention to socially threatening stimuli, the authors predicted that high-EM participants, but not lower-EM participants, would initially look toward Black faces and then subsequently direct their attention away from these faces. Participants viewed pairs of images, some of which consisted of one White and one Black male face, while a desk-mounted eyetracking camera recorded their eye movements. Results showed that, as predicted, high-EM, but not lower-EM, individuals exhibited patterns of visual attention indicative of social threat perception.

Identifying additional patients with diabetic nephropathy using the UK primary care initiative

AIMS

The aim of this study was to use general practice data to estimate the prevalence of diabetic nephropathy within the registered diabetes patients and examine variation in practice prevalence and management performance since introduction of this initiative.

METHODS

Reported quality indicators from the Northern Ireland General Practice Quality and Outcomes Framework were analysed for diabetes and diabetic nephropathy prevalence and management in the period 2004-2008. Variation in prevalence at practice level was assessed using multiple linear regression adjusting for age, practice size, deprivation and glycaemic control.

RESULTS

In 2006-2007, 57,454 (4.1%) adult diabetic patients were registered in the denominator population of 1.4 million compared with 51,923 (3.8%) in 2004-2005 (mean practice range 0.5-7.7%). Diabetic nephropathy prevalence was 15.1 and 11.5%, respectively (8688 and 5955 patients). Documented diabetic nephropathy prevalence showed marked variation across practices (range 0-100%) and was significantly negatively correlated with diabetes list size, albumin creatinine ratio testing rates and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade use and positively correlated with exception reporting rates. Specifically, for every increase in 100 diabetic patients to a register, documented diabetic nephropathy prevalence reduced by 40% (P=0.003). On the positive side, median albumin-creatinine ratio testing rates doubled to 82% compared with figures in the pre-Framework era.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of the Northern Ireland General Practice Quality and Outcomes Framework has positively benefitted testing for diabetic nephropathy and increased numbers of detected patients in a short space of time. Large variation in diabetic nephropathy prevalence remains and is associated with diabetes registry size, screening and treatment practices, suggesting that understanding this variation may help detect and better manage diabetic nephropathy.