1
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Vogelsang L, Drissi-Daoudi L, Herzog MH. Temporal windows of unconscious processing cannot easily be disrupted. J Vis 2024; 24:21. [PMID: 38656529 PMCID: PMC11044838 DOI: 10.1167/jov.24.4.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Conscious perception is preceded by long periods of unconscious processing. These periods are crucial for analyzing temporal information and for solving the many ill-posed problems of vision. An important question is what starts and ends these windows and how they may be interrupted. Most experimental paradigms do not offer the methodology required for such investigation. Here, we used the sequential metacontrast paradigm, in which two streams of lines, expanding from the center to the periphery, are presented, and participants are asked to attend to one of the motion streams. If several lines in the attended motion stream are offset, the offsets are known to integrate mandatorily and unconsciously, even if separated by up to 450 ms. Using this paradigm, we here found that external visual objects, such as an annulus, presented during the motion stream, do not disrupt mandatory temporal integration. Thus, if a window is started once, it appears to remain open even in the presence of disruptions that are known to interrupt visual processes normally. Further, we found that interrupting the motion stream with a gap disrupts temporal integration but does not terminate the overall unconscious processing window. Thus, while temporal integration is key to unconscious processing, not all stimuli in the same processing window are integrated together. These results strengthen the case for unconscious processing taking place in windows of sensemaking, during which temporal integration occurs in a flexible and perceptually meaningful manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Vogelsang
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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2
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Garobbio S, Kunchulia M, Herzog MH. Weak correlations between visual abilities in healthy older adults, despite long-term performance stability. Vision Res 2024; 215:108355. [PMID: 38142530 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Using batteries of visual tests, most studies have found that there are only weak correlations between the performance levels of the tests. Factor analysis has confirmed these results. This means that a participant excelling in one test may rank low in another test. Hence, there is very little evidence for a common factor in vision. In visual aging research, cross-sectional studies have repeatedly found that healthy older adults' performance is strongly deteriorated in most visual tests compared to young adults. However, also within the healthy older population, there is no evidence for a visual common factor. To investigate whether the weak between-tests correlations are due to fluctuations in individual performance throughout time, we conducted a longitudinal study. Healthy older adults performed a battery of eight visual tests, with two re-tests after approximately four and seven years. Pearson's, Spearman's and intraclass correlations of most visual tests were significant across the three testing, indicating that the tests are reliable and individual differences are stable across years. Yet, we found low between-tests correlations at each visit, which is consistent with previous studies finding no evidence for a visual common factor. Our results exclude the possibility that the weak correlations between tests are due to high within-individual variance across time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Garobbio
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, EEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Marina Kunchulia
- Free University of Tbilisi and Ivane Beritashvili Center of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, EEcole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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3
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Menétrey MQ, Herzog MH, Pascucci D. Pre-stimulus alpha activity modulates long-lasting unconscious feature integration. Neuroimage 2023; 278:120298. [PMID: 37517573 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pre-stimulus alpha (α) activity can influence perception of shortly presented, low-contrast stimuli. The underlying mechanisms are often thought to affect perception exactly at the time of presentation. In addition, it is suggested that α cycles determine temporal windows of integration. However, in everyday situations, stimuli are usually presented for periods longer than ∼100 ms and perception is often an integration of information across space and time. Moving objects are just one example. Hence, the question is whether α activity plays a role also in temporal integration, especially when stimuli are integrated over several α cycles. Using electroencephalography (EEG), we investigated the relationship between pre-stimulus brain activity and long-lasting integration in the sequential metacontrast paradigm (SQM), where two opposite vernier offsets, embedded in a stream of lines, are unconsciously integrated into a single percept. We show that increases in α power, even 300 ms before the stimulus, affected the probability of reporting the first offset, shown at the very beginning of the SQM. This effect was mediated by the systematic slowing of the α rhythm that followed the peak in α power. No phase effects were found. Together, our results demonstrate a cascade of neural changes, following spontaneous bursts of α activity and extending beyond a single moment, which influences the sensory representation of visual features for hundreds of milliseconds. Crucially, as feature integration in the SQM occurs before a conscious percept is elicited, this also provides evidence that α activity is linked to mechanisms regulating unconscious processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maëlan Q Menétrey
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - David Pascucci
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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4
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Vogelsang L, Drissi-Daoudi L, Herzog MH. Processing load, and not stimulus evidence, determines the duration of unconscious visual feature integration. Commun Psychol 2023; 1:8. [PMID: 38665247 PMCID: PMC11041769 DOI: 10.1038/s44271-023-00011-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Integration across space and time is essential for the analysis of motion, low contrast, and many more stimuli. A crucial question is what determines the duration of integration. Based on classical models of decision-making, one might expect that integration terminates as soon as sufficient evidence about a stimulus is accumulated and a threshold is crossed. However, there is very little research on this question as most experimental paradigms cannot monitor processing following stimulus presentation. In particular, it is difficult to determine when processing terminates. Here, using the sequential metacontrast paradigm (SQM), in which information is mandatorily integrated along motion trajectories, we show that the processing load determines the extent of integration but that evidence accumulation does not. Further, the extent of integration is determined by absolute time instead of the number of elements presented. These results have important implications for understanding the time course and mechanisms of temporal integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Vogelsang
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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5
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Gordillo D, Ramos da Cruz J, Moreno D, Garobbio S, Herzog MH. Do we really measure what we think we are measuring? iScience 2023; 26:106017. [PMID: 36844457 PMCID: PMC9947309 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Tests used in the empirical sciences are often (implicitly) assumed to be representative of a given research question in the sense that similar tests should lead to similar results. Here, we show that this assumption is not always valid. We illustrate our argument with the example of resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG). We used multiple analysis methods, contrary to typical EEG studies where one analysis method is used. We found, first, that many EEG features correlated significantly with cognitive tasks. However, these EEG features correlated weakly with each other. Similarly, in a second analysis, we found that many EEG features were significantly different in older compared to younger participants. When we compared these EEG features pairwise, we did not find strong correlations. In addition, EEG features predicted cognitive tasks poorly as shown by cross-validated regression analysis. We discuss several explanations of these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Gordillo
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding author
| | - Janir Ramos da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute for Systems and Robotics – Lisboa (LARSyS), Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
- Wyss Center for Bio and Neuroengineering, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dana Moreno
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Simona Garobbio
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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6
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Lonnqvist B, Bornet A, Doerig A, Herzog MH. Global information processing in feedforward deep networks. J Vis 2022. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.14.3212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ben Lonnqvist
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition & Behaviour, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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7
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Choung OH, Gordillo D, Roinishvili M, Brand A, Herzog MH, Chkonia E. Intact and deficient contextual processing in schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Res Cogn 2022; 30:100265. [PMID: 36119400 PMCID: PMC9477851 DOI: 10.1016/j.scog.2022.100265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia patients are known to have deficits in contextual vision. However, results are often very mixed. In some paradigms, patients do not take the context into account and, hence, perform more veridically than healthy controls. In other paradigms, context deteriorates performance much more strongly in patients compared to healthy controls. These mixed results may be explained by differences in the paradigms as well as by small or biased samples, given the large heterogeneity of patients' deficits. Here, we show that mixed results may also come from idiosyncrasies of the stimuli used because in variants of the same visual paradigm, tested with the same participants, we found intact and deficient processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oh-Hyeon Choung
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding author. http://lpsy.epfl.ch
| | - Dario Gordillo
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Ivane Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
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8
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Herzog MH, Sayim B. Crowding: Recent advances and perspectives. J Vis 2022; 22:15. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.12.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bilge Sayim
- Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives (SCALab), CNRS, UMR 9193, University of Lille, Lille, France
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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9
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Gordillo D, da Cruz JR, Chkonia E, Lin WH, Favrod O, Brand A, Figueiredo P, Roinishvili M, Herzog MH. The EEG multiverse of schizophrenia. Cereb Cortex 2022; 33:3816-3826. [PMID: 36030389 PMCID: PMC10068296 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on schizophrenia typically focuses on one paradigm for which clear-cut differences between patients and controls are established. Great efforts are made to understand the underlying genetical, neurophysiological, and cognitive mechanisms, which eventually may explain the clinical outcome. One tacit assumption of these "deep rooting" approaches is that paradigms tap into common and representative aspects of the disorder. Here, we analyzed the resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) of 121 schizophrenia patients and 75 controls. Using multiple signal processing methods, we extracted 194 EEG features. Sixty-nine out of the 194 EEG features showed a significant difference between patients and controls, indicating that these features detect an important aspect of schizophrenia. Surprisingly, the correlations between these features were very low. We discuss several explanations to our results and propose that complementing "deep" with "shallow" rooting approaches might help in understanding the underlying mechanisms of the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Gordillo
- Corresponding author: Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | | | - Eka Chkonia
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University (TSMU), 0186 Tbilisi, Georgia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, 0159 Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Wei-Hsiang Lin
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics – Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, 0159 Tbilisi, Georgia
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Ivane Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, 0160 Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Garobbio S, Pilz KS, Kunchulia M, Herzog MH. No Common Factor Underlying Decline of Visual Abilities in Mild Cognitive Impairment. Exp Aging Res 2022; 49:183-200. [PMID: 35786407 DOI: 10.1080/0361073x.2022.2094660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recent work has shown an association between cognitive and visual impairments and two main theories were advanced, namely the sensory deprivation and the common cause theories. Most studies considered only basic visual functions such as visual acuity or visual field size and evaluated the association with dementia. OBJECTIVES To reconcile between these theories and to test the link between visual and cognitive decline in mildly cognitive impaired people. METHODS We employed a battery of 19 visual tasks on 39 older adults with mild cognitive impairment and 91 without any evidence of cognitive decline, as measured by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. RESULTS Our results show a strong association between visual impairment and mild cognitive impairment. In agreement with previous results with younger and healthy older adults, we found also only weak correlations between most tests in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that visual and cognitive abilities decline simultaneously, but they do so independently across visual and cognitive functions and across participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Garobbio
- a Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Karin S Pilz
- Cito Institute for Educational Measurement, Arnhem, The Netherlands
| | - Marina Kunchulia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, and Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Ivane Beritashvili Center of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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11
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Herzog MH. The Irreducibility of Vision: Gestalt, Crowding and the Fundamentals of Vision. Vision (Basel) 2022; 6:vision6020035. [PMID: 35737422 PMCID: PMC9228288 DOI: 10.3390/vision6020035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
What is fundamental in vision has been discussed for millennia. For philosophical realists and the physiological approach to vision, the objects of the outer world are truly given, and failures to perceive objects properly, such as in illusions, are just sporadic misperceptions. The goal is to replace the subjectivity of the mind by careful physiological analyses. Continental philosophy and the Gestaltists are rather skeptical or ignorant about external objects. The percepts themselves are their starting point, because it is hard to deny the truth of one own′s percepts. I will show that, whereas both approaches can well explain many visual phenomena with classic visual stimuli, they both have trouble when stimuli become slightly more complex. I suggest that these failures have a deeper conceptual reason, namely that their foundations (objects, percepts) do not hold true. I propose that only physical states exist in a mind independent manner and that everyday objects, such as bottles and trees, are perceived in a mind-dependent way. The fundamental processing units to process objects are extended windows of unconscious processing, followed by short, discrete conscious percepts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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12
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Favrod O, Brand A, Berdzenishvili E, Chkonia E, Akselrod M, Wagemans J, Herzog MH, Roinishvili M. Embedded figures in schizophrenia: A main deficit but no specificity. Schizophr Res Cogn 2022; 28:100227. [PMID: 34976748 PMCID: PMC8683755 DOI: 10.1016/j.scog.2021.100227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual deficits are core deficits of schizophrenia. Classically, deficits are determined with demanding psychophysical tasks requiring fine-grained spatial or temporal resolution. Less is known about holistic processing. Here, we employed the Leuven Embedded Figures Test (L-EFT) measuring classic aspects of Gestalt processing. A target shape is embedded in a context and observers have to detect as quickly as possible in which display the target is embedded. Targets vary in closure, symmetry, complexity, and good continuation. In all conditions, schizophrenia patients had longer RTs compared to controls and depressive patients and to a lesser extent compared to their siblings. There was no interaction suggesting that, once the main deficit of schizophrenia patients is discarded, there are no further deficits in Gestalt perception between the groups. This result is in line with a growing line of research showing that when schizophrenia patients are given sufficient time to accomplish the task, they perform as well as controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- Corresponding author.
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Eka Berdzenishvili
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Agricultural University of Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michel Akselrod
- MySpace Laboratory, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Johan Wagemans
- Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Department of Brain and Cognition, KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Belgium
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Agricultural University of Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia
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13
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Jegminat J, Jastrzębowska MA, Pachai MV, Herzog MH, Pfister JP. Correction: Bayesian regression explains how human participants handle parameter uncertainty. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1009932. [PMID: 35239645 PMCID: PMC8893341 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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14
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Herzog MH, Schurger A, Doerig A. First-person experience cannot rescue causal structure theories from the unfolding argument. Conscious Cogn 2022; 98:103261. [PMID: 35032833 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
We recently put forward an argument, the Unfolding Argument (UA), that integrated information theory (IIT) and other causal structure theories are either already falsified or unfalsifiable, which provoked significant criticism. It seems that we and the critics agree that the main question in this debate is whether first-person experience, independent of third-person data, is a sufficient foundation for theories of consciousness. Here, we argue that pure first-person experience cannot be a scientific foundation for IIT because science relies on taking measurements, and pure first-person experience is not measurable except through reports, brain activity, and the relationship between them. We also argue that pure first-person experience cannot be taken as ground truth because science is about backing up theories with data, not about asserting that we have ground truth independent of data. Lastly, we explain why no experiment based on third-person data can test IIT as a theory of consciousness. IIT may be a good theory of something, but not of consciousness. We conclude by exposing a deeper reason for the above conclusions: IIT's consciousness is by construction fully dissociated from any measurable thing and, for this reason, IIT implies that both the level and content of consciousness are epiphenomenal, with no causal power. IIT and other causal structure theories end up in a form of dissociative epiphenomenalism, in which we cannot even trust reports about first-person experiences. But reports about first-person experiences are taken as ground truth and the foundation for IIT's axioms. Therefore, accepting IIT leads to rejecting its own axioms. We also respond to several other criticisms against the UA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aaron Schurger
- Department of Psychology, Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA; Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA, USA; INSERM, Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Gif sur Yvette 91191, France; Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, I2BM, NeuroSpin, center, Gif sur Yvette 91191, France
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition & Behaviour, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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15
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Öğmen H, Herzog MH. Information Integration and Information Storage in Retinotopic and Non-Retinotopic Sensory Memory. Vision (Basel) 2021; 5:vision5040061. [PMID: 34941656 PMCID: PMC8704585 DOI: 10.3390/vision5040061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The first stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin model of human memory is a sensory memory (SM). The visual component of the SM was shown to operate within a retinotopic reference frame. However, a retinotopic SM (rSM) is unable to account for vision under natural viewing conditions because, for example, motion information needs to be analyzed across space and time. For this reason, the SM store of the Atkinson–Shiffrin model has been extended to include a non-retinotopic component (nrSM). In this paper, we analyze findings from two experimental paradigms and show drastically different properties of rSM and nrSM. We show that nrSM involves complex processes such as motion-based reference frames and Gestalt grouping, which establish object identities across space and time. We also describe a quantitative model for nrSM and show drastic differences between the spatio-temporal properties of rSM and nrSM. Since the reference-frame of the latter is non-retinotopic and motion-stream based, we suggest that the spatiotemporal properties of the nrSM are in accordance with the spatiotemporal properties of the motion system. Overall, these findings indicate that, unlike the traditional rSM, which is a relatively passive store, nrSM exhibits sophisticated processing properties to manage the complexities of ecological perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haluk Öğmen
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;
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16
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Abstract
Information about a moving object is usually poor at each retinotopic location because photoreceptor activation is short, noisy, and affected by shadows, reflections of other objects, and so on. Integration across the motion trajectory may yield a much better estimate about the objects’ features. Using the sequential metacontrast paradigm, we have shown previously that features, indeed, integrate along a motion trajectory in a long-lasting window of unconscious processing. In the sequential metacontrast paradigm, a percept of two diverging streams is elicited by the presentation of a central line followed by a sequence of flanking pairs of lines. When several lines are spatially offset, the offsets integrate mandatorily for several hundreds of milliseconds along the motion trajectory of the streams. We propose that, within these long-lasting windows, stimuli are first grouped based on Gestalt principles of grouping. These processes establish reference frames that are used to attribute features. Features are then integrated following their respective reference frame. Here using occlusion and bouncing effects, we show that indeed such grouping operations are in place. We found that features integrate only when the spatiotemporal integrity of the object is preserved. Moreover, when several moving objects are present, only features belonging to the same object integrate. Overall, our results show that feature integration is a deliberate strategy of the brain and long-lasting windows of processing can be seen as periods of sense making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Haluk Ögmen
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, CO, USA.,
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
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17
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Bornet A, Choung OH, Doerig A, Whitney D, Herzog MH, Manassi M. Global and high-level effects in crowding cannot be predicted by either high-dimensional pooling or target cueing. J Vis 2021; 21:10. [PMID: 34812839 PMCID: PMC8626847 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.12.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In visual crowding, the perception of a target deteriorates in the presence of nearby flankers. Traditionally, target-flanker interactions have been considered as local, mostly deleterious, low-level, and feature specific, occurring when information is pooled along the visual processing hierarchy. Recently, a vast literature of high-level effects in crowding (grouping effects and face-holistic crowding in particular) led to a different understanding of crowding, as a global, complex, and multilevel phenomenon that cannot be captured or explained by simple pooling models. It was recently argued that these high-level effects may still be captured by more sophisticated pooling models, such as the Texture Tiling model (TTM). Unlike simple pooling models, the high-dimensional pooling stage of the TTM preserves rich information about a crowded stimulus and, in principle, this information may be sufficient to drive high-level and global aspects of crowding. In addition, it was proposed that grouping effects in crowding may be explained by post-perceptual target cueing. Here, we extensively tested the predictions of the TTM on the results of six different studies that highlighted high-level effects in crowding. Our results show that the TTM cannot explain any of these high-level effects, and that the behavior of the model is equivalent to a simple pooling model. In addition, we show that grouping effects in crowding cannot be predicted by post-perceptual factors, such as target cueing. Taken together, these results reinforce once more the idea that complex target-flanker interactions determine crowding and that crowding occurs at multiple levels of the visual hierarchy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Oh-Hyeon Choung
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - David Whitney
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
- Vision Science Group, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mauro Manassi
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, King's College, Aberdeen, UK
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18
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Penaloza B, Herzog MH, Ogmen H. Adaptive Trade-off between Sensitivity and Spatial Resolution and its Implications for Motion Discrimination and Segregation. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.1853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Boris Penaloza
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver
- Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Panamá
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL)
| | - Haluk Ogmen
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver
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19
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Ceylan G, Herzog MH, Pascucci D. Serial dependence is related to the task and not the stimulus. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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20
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Lonnqvist B, Doerig A, Bornet A, Francis G, Schmittwilken L, Herzog MH. How crowding challenges (feedforward) convolutional neural networks. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ben Lonnqvist
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition & Behaviour, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Francis
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
| | | | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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21
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Biryukov A, Ceylan G, Herzog MH, Pascucci D. Perceptual decisions under stable visual input: absence of serial dependence and the build-up of adaptation. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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22
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Vogelsang L, Drissi-Daoudi L, Herzog MH. What determines the temporal extent of unconscious feature integration? J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Vogelsang
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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23
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Ozkirli A, Jastrzebowska MA, Draganski B, Herzog MH. Isolate or combine: population receptive field size in (un)crowding. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ayberk Ozkirli
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maya A. Jastrzebowska
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bogdan Draganski
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurology Department, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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24
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Tiurina N, Markov Y, Herzog MH, Pascucci D. Efficient ensemble summaries are inversely related to visual crowding. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Tiurina
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Yuri Markov
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- HSE University, Russia
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - David Pascucci
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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25
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Jastrzebowska MA, Chicherov V, Draganski B, Herzog MH. Unraveling brain interactions in vision: the example of crowding. J Vis 2021. [DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.9.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maya A. Jastrzebowska
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vitaly Chicherov
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Bogdan Draganski
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurology Department, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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26
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Abstract
In crowding, perception of a target deteriorates in the presence of nearby flankers. Surprisingly, perception can be rescued from crowding if additional flankers are added (uncrowding). Uncrowding is a major challenge for all classic models of crowding and vision in general, because the global configuration of the entire stimulus is crucial. However, it is unclear which characteristics of the configuration impact (un)crowding. Here, we systematically dissected flanker configurations and showed that (un)crowding cannot be easily explained by the effects of the sub-parts or low-level features of the stimulus configuration. Our modeling results suggest that (un)crowding requires global processing. These results are well in line with previous studies showing the importance of global aspects in crowding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oh-Hyeon Choung
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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27
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Lonnqvist B, Bornet A, Doerig A, Herzog MH. A comparative biology approach to DNN modeling of vision: A focus on differences, not similarities. J Vis 2021; 21:17. [PMID: 34551062 PMCID: PMC8475290 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.10.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep neural networks (DNNs) have revolutionized computer science and are now widely used for neuroscientific research. A hot debate has ensued about the usefulness of DNNs as neuroscientific models of the human visual system; the debate centers on to what extent certain shortcomings of DNNs are real failures and to what extent they are redeemable. Here, we argue that the main problem is that we often do not understand which human functions need to be modeled and, thus, what counts as a falsification. Hence, not only is there a problem on the DNN side, but there is also one on the brain side (i.e., with the explanandum-the thing to be explained). For example, should DNNs reproduce illusions? We posit that we can make better use of DNNs by adopting an approach of comparative biology by focusing on the differences, rather than the similarities, between DNNs and humans to improve our understanding of visual information processing in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Lonnqvist
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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28
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Peñaloza B, Herzog MH, Öğmen H. Adaptive mechanisms of visual motion discrimination, integration, and segregation. Vision Res 2021; 188:96-114. [PMID: 34304144 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Under ecological conditions, the luminance impinging on the retina varies within a dynamic range of 220 dB. Stimulus contrast can also vary drastically within a scene and eye movements leave little time for sampling luminance. Given these fundamental problems, the human brain allocates a significant amount of resources and deploys both structural and functional solutions that work in tandem to compress this range. Here we propose a new dynamic neural model built upon well-established canonical neural mechanisms. The model consists of two feed-forward stages. The first stage encodes the stimulus spatially and normalizes its activity by extracting contrast and discounting the background luminance. These normalized activities allow a second stage to implement a contrast-dependent spatial-integration strategy. We show how the properties of this model can account for adaptive properties of motion discrimination, integration, and segregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Peñaloza
- Perceptual and Cognitive Dynamics Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208, USA; Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Panama.
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Haluk Öğmen
- Perceptual and Cognitive Dynamics Laboratory, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208, USA
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29
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Cretenoud AF, Barakat A, Milliet A, Choung OH, Bertamini M, Constantin C, Herzog MH. How do visual skills relate to action video game performance? J Vis 2021; 21:10. [PMID: 34269794 PMCID: PMC8297421 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.7.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been claimed that video gamers possess increased perceptual and cognitive skills compared to non-video gamers. Here, we examined to which extent gaming performance in CS:GO (Counter-Strike: Global Offensive) correlates with visual performance. We tested 94 players ranging from beginners to experts with a battery of visual paradigms, such as visual acuity and contrast detection. In addition, we assessed performance in specific gaming skills, such as shooting and tracking, and administered personality traits. All measures together explained about 70% of the variance of the players’ rank. In particular, regression models showed that a few visual abilities, such as visual acuity in the periphery and the susceptibility to the Honeycomb illusion, were strongly associated with the players’ rank. Although the causality of the effect remains unknown, our results show that high-rank players perform better in certain visual skills compared to low-rank players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline F Cretenoud
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Arthur Barakat
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Logitech Europe S.A., Innovation Park EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Alain Milliet
- Logitech Europe S.A., Innovation Park EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Oh-Hyeon Choung
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Marco Bertamini
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,
| | | | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
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30
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Bornet A, Doerig A, Herzog MH, Francis G, Van der Burg E. Shrinking Bouma's window: How to model crowding in dense displays. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009187. [PMID: 34228703 PMCID: PMC8284675 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In crowding, perception of a target deteriorates in the presence of nearby flankers. Traditionally, it is thought that visual crowding obeys Bouma's law, i.e., all elements within a certain distance interfere with the target, and that adding more elements always leads to stronger crowding. Crowding is predominantly studied using sparse displays (a target surrounded by a few flankers). However, many studies have shown that this approach leads to wrong conclusions about human vision. Van der Burg and colleagues proposed a paradigm to measure crowding in dense displays using genetic algorithms. Displays were selected and combined over several generations to maximize human performance. In contrast to Bouma's law, only the target's nearest neighbours affected performance. Here, we tested various models to explain these results. We used the same genetic algorithm, but instead of selecting displays based on human performance we selected displays based on the model's outputs. We found that all models based on the traditional feedforward pooling framework of vision were unable to reproduce human behaviour. In contrast, all models involving a dedicated grouping stage explained the results successfully. We show how traditional models can be improved by adding a grouping stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alban Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Francis
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Erik Van der Burg
- TNO, Human Factors, Soesterberg, The Netherlands
- Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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31
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Menétrey MQ, Vogelsang L, Herzog MH. A guideline for linking brain wave findings to the various aspects of discrete perception. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 55:3528-3537. [PMID: 34125452 PMCID: PMC9543405 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Brain waves, determined by electrical and magnetic brain recordings (e.g., EEG and MEG), and fluctuating behavioral responses, determined by response time or accuracy measures, are frequently taken to support discrete perception. For example, it has been proposed that humans experience only one conscious percept per brain wave (e.g., during one alpha cycle). However, the proposed link between brain waves and discrete perception is typically rather vague. More importantly, there are many models and aspects of discrete perception and it is often not apparent in what theoretical framework brain wave findings are interpreted and to what specific aspects of discrete perception they relate. Here, we review different approaches to discrete perception and highlight issues with particular interpretations. We then discuss how certain findings on brain waves may relate to certain aspects of discrete perception. The main purpose of this meta‐contribution is to give a short overview of discrete models of perception and to illustrate the need to make explicit what aspects of discrete theories are addressed by what aspects of brain wave findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maëlan Q Menétrey
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Vogelsang
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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32
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Xu HA, Modirshanechi A, Lehmann MP, Gerstner W, Herzog MH. Novelty is not surprise: Human exploratory and adaptive behavior in sequential decision-making. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009070. [PMID: 34081705 PMCID: PMC8205159 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Classic reinforcement learning (RL) theories cannot explain human behavior in the absence of external reward or when the environment changes. Here, we employ a deep sequential decision-making paradigm with sparse reward and abrupt environmental changes. To explain the behavior of human participants in these environments, we show that RL theories need to include surprise and novelty, each with a distinct role. While novelty drives exploration before the first encounter of a reward, surprise increases the rate of learning of a world-model as well as of model-free action-values. Even though the world-model is available for model-based RL, we find that human decisions are dominated by model-free action choices. The world-model is only marginally used for planning, but it is important to detect surprising events. Our theory predicts human action choices with high probability and allows us to dissociate surprise, novelty, and reward in EEG signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- He A. Xu
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Alireza Modirshanechi
- Brain-Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- School of Computer and Communication Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marco P. Lehmann
- Brain-Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- School of Computer and Communication Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Wulfram Gerstner
- Brain-Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- School of Computer and Communication Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Brain-Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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33
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Cretenoud AF, Grzeczkowski L, Kunchulia M, Herzog MH. Individual differences in the perception of visual illusions are stable across eyes, time, and measurement methods. J Vis 2021; 21:26. [PMID: 34029369 PMCID: PMC8164370 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.5.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Vision scientists have tried to classify illusions for more than a century. For example, some studies suggested that there is a unique common factor for all visual illusions. Other studies proposed that there are several subclasses of illusions, such as illusions of linear extent or distortions. We previously observed strong within-illusion correlations but only weak between-illusion correlations, arguing in favor of an even higher multifactorial space with-more or less-each illusion making up its own factor. These mixed results are surprising. Here, we examined to what extent individual differences in the perception of visual illusions are stable across eyes, time, and measurement methods. First, we did not find any significant differences in the magnitudes of the seven illusions tested with monocular or binocular viewing conditions. In addition, illusion magnitudes were not significantly predicted by visual acuity. Second, we observed stable individual differences over time. Last, we compared two illusion measurements, namely an adjustment procedure and a method of constant stimuli, which both led to similar individual differences. Hence, it is unlikely that the individual differences in the perception of visual illusions arise from instability across eyes, time, and measurement methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline F Cretenoud
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
| | - Lukasz Grzeczkowski
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Active Perception and Cognition, Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,
| | - Marina Kunchulia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia.,Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Ivane Beritashvili Center of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia.,
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,
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34
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Garobbio S, Roinishvili M, Favrod O, da Cruz JR, Chkonia E, Brand A, Herzog MH. Electrophysiological correlates of visual backward masking in patients with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2021; 307:111206. [PMID: 33092939 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2020.111206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In visual backward masking (VBM), a target is followed by a mask that decreases target discriminability. Schizophrenia patients (SZ) show strong and reproducible masking impairments, which are associated with reduced EEG amplitudes. Patients with bipolar disorder (BP) show masking deficits, too. Here, we investigated the neural EEG correlates of VBM in BP. 122 SZ, 94 unaffected controls, and 38 BP joined a standard VBM experiment. 123 SZ, 94 unaffected controls and 16 BP joined a corresponding EEG experiment, analyzed in terms of global field power. As in previous studies, SZ and BP show strong masking deficits. Importantly and similarly to SZ, BP show decreased global field power amplitudes at approximately 200 ms after the target onset, compared to controls. These results suggest that VBM deficits are not specific for schizophrenia but for a broader range of functional psychoses. Potentially, both SZ and BP show deficient target enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Garobbio
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia; Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Janir Ramos da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia; Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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35
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Doerig A, Schurger A, Herzog MH. Response to commentaries on 'hard criteria for empirical theories of consciousness'. Cogn Neurosci 2020; 12:99-101. [PMID: 33251954 DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2020.1853086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In consciousness research, we have a very large number of theories, which exceeds by far the number of theories in other fields. We recently presented a set of criteria for evaluating and comparing theories of consciousness, and then applied the criteria to a number of different theories. Our publication sparked strong responses as evident by the many comments published in Cognitive Neuroscience (this issue). Overall, there seems to be consensus that a theory of consciousness (ToC) needs to have an unconscious alternative, but other criteria sparked controversy. The hottest debate is to what extent consciousness needs to work with purely 1st person data, containing information not available in 3rd person reports. We would like to thank all the commentators for their lively input and we look forward to continued dialog as theories evolve and compete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aaron Schurger
- Department of Psychology, Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA, USA.,INSERM, Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Gif Sur Yvette, France.,Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, I2BM, NeuroSpin Center, Gif Sur Yvette, France
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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36
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Herzog MH, Drissi-Daoudi L, Doerig A. All in Good Time: Long-Lasting Postdictive Effects Reveal Discrete Perception. Trends Cogn Sci 2020; 24:826-837. [PMID: 32893140 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Is consciousness a continuous stream of percepts or is it discrete, occurring only at certain moments in time? This question has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and neuroscientists for centuries. Both hypotheses have fallen repeatedly in and out of favor. Here, we review recent studies exploring long-lasting postdictive effects and show that the results favor a two-stage discrete model, in which substantial periods of continuous unconscious processing precede discrete conscious percepts. We propose that such a model marries the advantages of both continuous and discrete models and resolves centuries old debates about perception and consciousness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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37
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Peñaloza B, Herzog MH, Öğmen H. Non-retinotopic adaptive center-surround modulation in motion processing. Vision Res 2020; 174:10-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2020.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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38
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Abstract
We recently found only weak correlations between the susceptibility to various visual illusions. However, we observed strong correlations among different variants of an illusion, suggesting that the visual space of illusions includes several illusion-specific factors. Here, we specifically examined how factors for the vertical-horizontal, Müller-Lyer, and Ponzo illusions relate to each other. We measured the susceptibility to each illusion separately and to combinations of two illusions, which we refer to as a merged illusion; for example, we tested the Müller-Lyer illusion and the vertical-horizontal illusion, as well as a merged version of both illusions. We used an adjustment procedure in two experiments with 306 and 98 participants, respectively. Using path analyses, correlations, and exploratory factor analyses, we found that the susceptibility to a merged illusion is well predicted from the susceptibilities to the individual illusions. We suggest that there are illusion-specific factors that, by independent combinations, represent the whole visual structure underlying illusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline F. Cretenoud
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Francis
- Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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39
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Abstract
Consciousness is now a well-established field of empirical research. A large body of experimental results has been accumulated and is steadily growing. In parallel, many Theories of Consciousness (ToCs) have been proposed. These theories are diverse in nature, ranging from computational to neurophysiological and quantum theoretical approaches. This contrasts with other fields of natural science, which host a smaller number of competing theories. We suggest that one reason for this abundance of extremely different theories may be the lack of stringent criteria specifying how empirical data constrains ToCs. First, we argue that consciousness is a well-defined topic from an empirical point of view and motivate a purely empirical stance on the quest for consciousness. Second, we present a checklist of criteria that, we propose, empirical ToCs need to cope with. Third, we review 13 of the most influential ToCs and subject them to the criteria. Our analysis helps to situate these different ToCs in the theoretical landscapeand sheds light on their strengths and weaknesses from a strictly empirical point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aaron Schurger
- Department of Psychology, Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, CA, USA.,Institute for Interdisciplinary Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Irvine, CA, USA.,INSERM, Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Gif sur Yvette 91191, France.,Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, I2BM, NeuroSpin center, Gif sur Yvette 91191, France
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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40
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da Cruz JR, Shaqiri A, Roinishvili M, Favrod O, Chkonia E, Brand A, Figueiredo P, Herzog MH. Neural Compensation Mechanisms of Siblings of Schizophrenia Patients as Revealed by High-Density EEG. Schizophr Bull 2020; 46:1009-1018. [PMID: 31961928 PMCID: PMC7345810 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbz133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Visual backward masking (VBM) deficits are candidate endophenotypes of schizophrenia indexing genetic liability of the disorder. In VBM, a target is followed by a mask that deteriorates target perception. Schizophrenia patients and, to a lesser extent, their unaffected relatives show strong and reproducible VBM deficits. In patients, VBM deficits are associated with strongly decreased amplitudes in the evoked-related potentials (ERPs). Here, to unveil the neural mechanisms of VBM in schizophrenia, circumventing illness-specific confounds, we investigated the electroencephalogram correlates of VBM in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients. We tested 110 schizophrenia patients, 60 siblings, and 83 healthy controls. As in previous studies, patients showed strong behavioral deficits and decreased ERP amplitudes compared to controls. Surprisingly, the ERP amplitudes of siblings were even higher than the ones of controls, while their performances were similar. ERP amplitudes in siblings were found to correlate with performance. These results suggest that VBM is deteriorated in patients and siblings. However, siblings, unlike patients, can partially compensate for the deficits by over-activating a network of brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janir R da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland,Institute for Systems and Robotics – Lisbon (LARSyS) and Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal,To whom correspondence should be addressed; CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; tel: +41 21 693 17 42, fax: +41 21 693 1749, e-mail:
| | - Albulena Shaqiri
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia,Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia,Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics – Lisbon (LARSyS) and Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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41
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Abstract
Humans make two to four rapid eye movements (saccades) per second, which, surprisingly, does not lead to abrupt changes in vision. To the contrary, we perceive a stable world. Hence, an important question is how information is integrated across saccades. To investigate this question, we used the sequential metacontrast paradigm (SQM), where two expanding streams of lines are presented. When one line is spatially offset, the other lines are perceived as being offset, too. When more lines are offset, all offsets integrate mandatorily; that is, observers cannot report the individual offsets but perceive one integrated offset. Here, we asked observers to make a saccade during the SQM. Even though the saccades caused a highly disrupted motion trajectory on the retina, offsets presented before and after the saccade integrated mandatorily. When observers made no saccade and the streams were displaced on the screen so that a similarly disrupted retinal image occurred as in the previous condition, no integration occurred. We suggest that trans-saccadic integration and perception are determined by object identity in spatiotopic coordinates and not by the retinal image.
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42
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Doerig A, Schmittwilken L, Sayim B, Manassi M, Herzog MH. Capsule networks as recurrent models of grouping and segmentation. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1008017. [PMID: 32692780 PMCID: PMC7394447 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Classically, visual processing is described as a cascade of local feedforward computations. Feedforward Convolutional Neural Networks (ffCNNs) have shown how powerful such models can be. However, using visual crowding as a well-controlled challenge, we previously showed that no classic model of vision, including ffCNNs, can explain human global shape processing. Here, we show that Capsule Neural Networks (CapsNets), combining ffCNNs with recurrent grouping and segmentation, solve this challenge. We also show that ffCNNs and standard recurrent CNNs do not, suggesting that the grouping and segmentation capabilities of CapsNets are crucial. Furthermore, we provide psychophysical evidence that grouping and segmentation are implemented recurrently in humans, and show that CapsNets reproduce these results well. We discuss why recurrence seems needed to implement grouping and segmentation efficiently. Together, we provide mutually reinforcing psychophysical and computational evidence that a recurrent grouping and segmentation process is essential to understand the visual system and create better models that harness global shape computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Lynn Schmittwilken
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Dept. Computational Psychology, Institute of Software Engineering and Theoretical Computer Science, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bilge Sayim
- Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 9193—SCALab—Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Mauro Manassi
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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43
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da Cruz JR, Favrod O, Roinishvili M, Chkonia E, Brand A, Mohr C, Figueiredo P, Herzog MH. EEG microstates are a candidate endophenotype for schizophrenia. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3089. [PMID: 32555168 PMCID: PMC7303216 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16914-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Electroencephalogram microstates are recurrent scalp potential configurations that remain stable for around 90 ms. The dynamics of two of the four canonical classes of microstates, commonly labeled as C and D, have been suggested as a potential endophenotype for schizophrenia. For endophenotypes, unaffected relatives of patients must show abnormalities compared to controls. Here, we examined microstate dynamics in resting-state recordings of unaffected siblings of patients with schizophrenia, patients with schizophrenia, healthy controls, and patients with first episodes of psychosis (FEP). Patients with schizophrenia and their siblings showed increased presence of microstate class C and decreased presence of microstate class D compared to controls. No difference was found between FEP and chronic patients. Our findings suggest that the dynamics of microstate classes C and D are a candidate endophenotype for schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janir Ramos da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Institute for Systems and Robotics-Lisbon (LARSyS) and Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christine Mohr
- Faculté des Sciences Sociales et Politiques, Institut de Psychologie, Bâtiment Geopolis, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics-Lisbon (LARSyS) and Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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44
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Cretenoud AF, Grzeczkowski L, Bertamini M, Herzog MH. Individual differences in the Müller-Lyer and Ponzo illusions are stable across different contexts. J Vis 2020; 20:4. [PMID: 32511665 PMCID: PMC7416885 DOI: 10.1167/jov.20.6.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Vision scientists have attempted to classify visual illusions according to certain aspects, such as brightness or spatial features. For example, Piaget proposed that visual illusion magnitudes either decrease or increase with age. Subsequently, it was suggested that illusions are segregated according to their context: real-world contexts enhance and abstract contexts inhibit illusion magnitudes with age. We tested the effects of context on the Müller-Lyer and Ponzo illusions with a standard condition (no additional context), a line-drawing perspective condition, and a real-world perspective condition. A mixed-effects model analysis, based on data from 76 observers with ages ranging from 6 to 66 years, did not reveal any significant interaction between context and age. Although we found strong intra-illusion correlations for both illusions, we found only weak inter-illusion correlations, suggesting that the structure underlying these two spatial illusions includes several specific factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline F. Cretenoud
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Lukasz Grzeczkowski
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
- Allgemeine und Experimentelle Psychologie, Department Psychologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany
| | - Marco Bertamini
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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45
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Drissi-Daoudi L, Doerig A, Parkosadze K, Kunchulia M, Herzog MH. How stable is perception in #TheDress and #TheShoe? Vision Res 2020; 169:1-5. [PMID: 32085967 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2020.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
#TheDress is perceived by some people as black and blue while others perceive it as white and gold. We have previously shown that the first encounter with #TheDress strongly biases its perception. This percept remained stable during the experiment, suggesting a role of one-shot learning. #TheShoe is another image that elicits similar bimodal color percepts. Here, we investigated how percepts change over time in both #TheShoe and #TheDress. First, we show that the important role of one-shot learning, which we found for #TheDress extends to #TheShoe. Similarly to our previous results with the dress, hiding large parts of the image with occluders biased the percept of the shoe. The percept did not change for the majority of observers when the occluders were removed. Second, we investigated if and how percepts switch over a time course of 14 days. We found that although some observers experienced percept switches, the percept was largely stable for most observers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Drissi-Daoudi
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.
| | - Adrien Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Khatuna Parkosadze
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Marina Kunchulia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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46
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Doerig A, Bornet A, Choung OH, Herzog MH. Crowding reveals fundamental differences in local vs. global processing in humans and machines. Vision Res 2020; 167:39-45. [PMID: 31918074 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Feedforward Convolutional Neural Networks (ffCNNs) have become state-of-the-art models both in computer vision and neuroscience. However, human-like performance of ffCNNs does not necessarily imply human-like computations. Previous studies have suggested that current ffCNNs do not make use of global shape information. However, it is currently unclear whether this reflects fundamental differences between ffCNN and human processing or is merely an artefact of how ffCNNs are trained. Here, we use visual crowding as a well-controlled, specific probe to test global shape computations. Our results provide evidence that ffCNNs cannot produce human-like global shape computations for principled architectural reasons. We lay out approaches that may address shortcomings of ffCNNs to provide better models of the human visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Doerig
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.
| | - A Bornet
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - O H Choung
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - M H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
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Favrod O, da Cruz JR, Roinishvili M, Berdzenishvili E, Brand A, Figueiredo P, Herzog MH, Chkonia E. Electrophysiological correlates of visual backward masking in patients with major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2019; 294:111004. [PMID: 31704371 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2019.111004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Depression and schizophrenia are two psychiatric diseases with high co-morbidity. For this reason, it is important to find sensitive endophenotypes, which may disentangle the two disorders. The Shine-Through paradigm, a visual backward masking task, is a potential endophenotype for schizophrenia. Masking is strongly deteriorated in schizophrenia patients, which is reflected in reduced EEG amplitudes. Here, we tested whether masking deficits and associated EEG changes are also found in patients with major depressive disorder. First, we replicated previous findings showing that depressive patients exhibit, at most, only weak masking deficits. Second, we found that the EEG amplitudes of depressive patients were reduced compared to controls and slightly increased compared to schizophrenia patients. As a secondary analysis, we compared the performance in the masking paradigm with three cognitive tasks, namely: the Wisconsin card sorting test, a verbal fluency test and a degraded continuous performance test. Performance in all but the verbal fluency test could discriminate schizophrenia from depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.
| | - Janir R da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland; Institute for Systems and Robotics - Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, Tbilisi, Georgia; Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Agricultural University of Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | | | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics - Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Eka Chkonia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Agricultural University of Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia; Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia
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Cretenoud AF, Karimpur H, Grzeczkowski L, Francis G, Hamburger K, Herzog MH. Factors underlying visual illusions are illusion-specific but not feature-specific. J Vis 2019; 19:12. [DOI: 10.1167/19.14.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aline F. Cretenoud
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Harun Karimpur
- Experimental Psychology, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
| | - Lukasz Grzeczkowski
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- General and Experimental Psychology, Psychology Department, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Gregory Francis
- Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Kai Hamburger
- Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Michael H. Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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49
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Lehmann MP, Xu HA, Liakoni V, Herzog MH, Gerstner W, Preuschoff K. One-shot learning and behavioral eligibility traces in sequential decision making. eLife 2019; 8:e47463. [PMID: 31709980 PMCID: PMC6897511 DOI: 10.7554/elife.47463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In many daily tasks, we make multiple decisions before reaching a goal. In order to learn such sequences of decisions, a mechanism to link earlier actions to later reward is necessary. Reinforcement learning (RL) theory suggests two classes of algorithms solving this credit assignment problem: In classic temporal-difference learning, earlier actions receive reward information only after multiple repetitions of the task, whereas models with eligibility traces reinforce entire sequences of actions from a single experience (one-shot). Here, we show one-shot learning of sequences. We developed a novel paradigm to directly observe which actions and states along a multi-step sequence are reinforced after a single reward. By focusing our analysis on those states for which RL with and without eligibility trace make qualitatively distinct predictions, we find direct behavioral (choice probability) and physiological (pupil dilation) signatures of reinforcement learning with eligibility trace across multiple sensory modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco P Lehmann
- Brain-Mind-Institute, School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
- School of Computer and Communication SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - He A Xu
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Vasiliki Liakoni
- Brain-Mind-Institute, School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
- School of Computer and Communication SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Wulfram Gerstner
- Brain-Mind-Institute, School of Life SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
- School of Computer and Communication SciencesÉcole Polytechnique Fédérale de LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Kerstin Preuschoff
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of GenevaGenevaSwitzerland
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da Cruz J, Rodrigues J, Thoresen JC, Chicherov V, Figueiredo P, Herzog MH, Sandi C. Dominant men are faster in decision-making situations and exhibit a distinct neural signal for promptness. Cereb Cortex 2019; 28:3740-3751. [PMID: 30124784 PMCID: PMC6132284 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Social dominance, the main organizing principle of social hierarchies, facilitates priority access to resources by dominant individuals. Throughout taxa, individuals are more likely to become dominant if they act first in social situations and acting fast may provide evolutionary advantage; yet whether fast decision-making is a behavioral predisposition of dominant persons outside of social contexts is not known. Following characterization of participants for social dominance motivation, we found that, indeed, men high in social dominance respond faster–without loss of accuracy–than those low in dominance across a variety of decision-making tasks. Both groups did not differ in a simple reaction task. Then, we selected a decision-making task and applied high-density electroencephalography (EEG) to assess temporal dynamics of brain activation through event related potentials. We found that promptness to respond in the choice task in dominant individuals is related to a strikingly amplified brain signal at approximately 240 ms post-stimulus presentation. Source imaging analyses identified higher activity in the left insula and in the cingulate, right inferior temporal and right angular gyri in high than in low dominance participants. Our findings suggest that promptness to respond in choice situations, regardless of social context, is a biomarker for social disposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janir da Cruz
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.,Institute for Systems and Robotics - Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - John C Thoresen
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vitaly Chicherov
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics - Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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